pipl.com
The most comprehensive people search on the web. Pipl finds high-quality results in pages that cannot be found on regular search engines. Free People Search.
Revisiones bibliográficas. Documentación científica en Ortopedia y Traumatología, medicina deportiva, artroscopia, artroplastia y de todas las patologías del sistema Músculo-Esquelético
sábado, 23 de julio de 2011
El descubrimiento del genoma de un tipo de leucemia permitirá establecer terapias individuales
| ||||||
|
|
Una plataforma española para subir a médicos y enfermeros a la nube
| ||||||
|
|
Ketamina oral para procedimientos del cuidado de heridas de adultos con quemaduras
| ||
|
Cefalea post punción dural
| ||||||
|
Traumatismo craneoencefálico pediátrico grave (I). Epidemiología, clínica y evolución
Traumatismo craneoencefálico pediátrico grave (I). Epidemiología, clínica y evolución
Publicado en Med Intensiva. 2011;35:331-6. - vol.35 núm 06
Resumen
Objetivo
Describir las características epidemiológicas, clínicas y evolutivas de los pacientes pediátricos con traumatismo craneoencefálico grave (TCEG).
Material y método
Revisión de los pacientes ingresados en una unidad de medicina intensiva pediátrica (UMIP) con TCEG en el periodo comprendido entre julio de 1983 y diciembre de 2009.
Resultados
De los 389 pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE) ingresados en nuestra unidad durante el periodo de estudio, presentaron TCEG 174 (45%). La media de edad de este grupo fue 67±9 meses, con una puntuación media en la escala de Glasgow (GCS) de 5,5±1,8 y una puntuación PRISM media de 10,7±6,7. La etiología más frecuente de los TCEG fueron los accidentes de tráfico (56%), aunque en la última década existe una disminución significativa de su incidencia (el 58,5 frente al 45,3%; p<0,001). Un 21% de los pacientes precisaron evacuación de la lesión objetivada en la TC, objetivándose en un 39% lesión encefálica difusa (LED) grave. Un 79% de los pacientes en los que se monitorizó la presión intracraneal (PIC) presentaron hipertensión intracraneal (HTC). Las secuelas de relevancia clínica se objetivaron en 59 pacientes (39%), siendo graves en el 64% de ellos. La mortalidad de la población estudiada fue de un 24,7%. La incidencia de HTC fue significativamente menor en la última década estudiada (el 88 frente al 54%; p<0,05), con una mejor recuperación clínica (el 23,3 frente al 63,1%; p<0,001).
Conclusiones
a) La incidencia de los accidentes de tráfico disminuyó en la última década en la población estudiada; b) los pacientes con TCEG en los que se monitorizó la PIC presentaron una alta incidencia de HTC, y c) la morbimortalidad de los TCEG pediátricos disminuyó a lo largo del periodo de estudio.
Palabras clave Traumatismo craneoencefálico pediátrico. Epidemiología. Clínica. Evolución.
Palabras clave Traumatismo craneoencefálico pediátrico. Factores pronósticos. Morbilidad. Mortalidad.
Traumatismo craneoencefálico pediátrico grave (II): factores relacionados con la morbilidad y mortalidad
Publicado en Med Intensiva. 2011;35:337-43. - vol.35 núm 06
Resumen
Objetivo
Describir los factores asociados a la morbilidad y mortalidad de los pacientes pediátricos con traumatismo craneoencefálico grave (TCEG).
Material y método
Revisión de los pacientes ingresados en una unidad de medicina intensiva pediátrica (UMIP) con TCEG en el periodo comprendido entre julio de 1983 y diciembre de 2009.
Resultados
De los 389 pacientes con TCE ingresados en nuestra unidad durante el periodo de estudio, presentaron TCEG 174 (45%). La edad media de este grupo fue de 67 + 9 meses, con una puntuación media en la escala de Glasgow (GCS) de 5,5 + 1,8 y una puntuación PRISM media de 10,6 + 6,7. El 39% de los pacientes presentaron lesión encefálica difusa (LED) grave en la TAC. Un 79% de los pacientes en los que se monitorizó la presión intracraneal (PIC) presentaron hipertensión intracraneal (HIC). Estos pacientes tuvieron una mayor incidencia de secuelas graves que aquellos que no desarrollaron HIC (66,7 vs 23,1%; p=0,01).
Las secuelas de relevancia clínica se encontraron en 59 pacientes (34%), y fueron graves en el 64% de los mismos.
La mortalidad de los pacientes con TCEG fue de un 25% y se asoció de forma significativa a una menor puntuación del GCS, a la existencia de hiperglucemia o HIC, a la presencia de midriasis o shock y a la necesidad de ventilación mecánica. La mortalidad de la LED grave fue significativamente más elevada que la LED leve-moderada (87,5 vs 7,2%; p<0,001) y que la lesión focal (87,5 vs 36,1%; p<0,001). Los factores responsables de la mortalidad de forma independiente en los pacientes pediátricos con TCEG fueron la existencia de midriasis (OR: 31,27), HIC (OR: 13,23) e hiperglucemia (OR: 3,10).
Conclusiones
a) Los TCEG en edad pediátrica asocian una alta morbilidad y mortalidad; b) la existencia de HIC se asoció al desarrollo de secuelas graves; c) los factores de riesgo de mortalidad de forma independiente fueron la existencia de midriasis, HIC e hiperglucemia.
Cancer de pulmon en uptodate n° 1
Aquí la primera Review
Overview of the risk factors, pathology, and clinical manifestations of lung cancer
Author
David E Midthun, MD Section Editor
James R Jett, MD Deputy Editor
Michael E Ross, MD
Last literature review version 18.2: May 2010 | This topic last updated: May 6, 2010 (More)
INTRODUCTION — Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide for both men and women, causing approximately 1.2 million deaths per year [1]. In the United States in 2010, there will be about 220,000 new cases of lung cancer and 160,000 deaths [2]. In contrast, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers combined will be responsible for only 118,000 deaths.
Both the absolute and relative frequency of lung cancer has risen dramatically. As an example, the age-adjusted death rates from lung cancer were similar to that of pancreatic cancer prior to 1930 for men and prior to 1960 for women (figure 1 and figure 2) [2]. Around 1953, lung cancer became the most common cause of cancer deaths in men, and in 1985, it became the leading cause of cancer deaths in women. Lung cancer deaths have begun to decline in men, reflecting a decrease in smoking [3]. The rise in the death rate in women appears to have reached a plateau, although almost one-half of all lung cancer deaths now occur in women. (See "Women and lung cancer".)
The term lung cancer, or bronchogenic carcinoma, refers to malignancies that originate in the airways or pulmonary parenchyma. Approximately 95 percent of all lung cancers are classified as either small cell lung cancer (SCLC) or non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). This distinction is essential for staging, treatment, and prognosis. Other cell types comprise about 5 percent of malignancies arising in the lung.
This discussion will present an overview of the risk factors, pathology, and clinical manifestations of NSCLC and SCLC. An overview of the initial evaluation, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer is presented separately. (See "Overview of the initial evaluation, treatment and prognosis of lung cancer".)
RISK FACTORS — A number of environmental and life-style factors have been associated with the subsequent development of lung cancer, of which cigarette smoking is the most important. The risk factors associated with the development of lung cancer are discussed in detail separately. (See "Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for lung cancer".)
Smoking — The primary risk factor for the development of lung cancer is cigarette smoking, which is estimated to account for approximately 90 percent of all lung cancers [4]. The risk of developing lung cancer for a current smoker of one pack per day for 40 years is approximately 20 times that of someone who has never smoked. Factors that increase the risk of developing lung cancer in smokers include the extent of smoking and exposure to other carcinogenic factors, such as asbestos.
Thus, the most important aspects of lung cancer prevention are preventing people from starting to smoke and inducing those who already smoke to stop. In individuals who do quit smoking, the risk of developing lung cancer gradually falls for about 15 years before it levels off and remains about twice that of someone who never smoked [5]. (See "Management of smoking cessation in adults".)
Radiation therapy — Radiation therapy (RT) can increase the risk of a second primary lung cancer in patients who have been treated for other malignancies.
In women who receive RT following a mastectomy for breast cancer, there appears to be an increased risk of lung cancer among smokers [6]. In a retrospective tumor registry study of 113 breast cancer patients who had a second primary lung cancer and 364 controls, there was an increased risk of a second primary lung cancer among women who had smoked and received postoperative RT. The risk was more pronounced for cancers in the ipsilateral lung. Similarly, RT for Hodgkin lymphoma has been associated with an increased risk of secondary lung cancer [7,8].
Improved RT techniques limit the dose of radiation to nonmalignant tissue, and contemporary equipment and dose planning is thought to significantly reduce the risk for secondary lung cancer.
Other factors — A number of other factors may affect the risk of developing lung cancer:
• Environmental toxins — Environmental factors have been associated with an increased risk for developing lung cancer. These include exposure to second-hand smoke, asbestos, radon, metals (arsenic, chromium, and nickel), ionizing radiation, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [4]. (See "Secondhand smoke exposure: Effects in adults".)
• Pulmonary fibrosis — Several studies have shown that the risk for lung cancer is increased about sevenfold patients with pulmonary fibrosis [9]. This increased risk appears to be independent of smoking. (See "Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias: Clinical manifestations and pathology".)
• HIV infection — The incidence of lung cancer among individuals infected with HIV appears to be increased compared to that seen in uninfected controls. (See "HIV infection and lung cancer".)
• Genetic factors — Genetic factors can affect both the risk for and prognosis from lung cancer. Although the genetic basis of lung cancer is still being elucidated, there is a clearly established familial risk. Specific genetic markers associated with the development of lung cancer and its prognosis are discussed elsewhere. (See "Molecular markers in non-small cell lung cancer".)
• Dietary factors — Epidemiologic evidence has suggested that various dietary factors (antioxidants, cruciferous vegetables, phytoestrogens) may reduce the risk of lung cancer, but the role of these factors is not well established. Attempts to confirm these epidemiologic findings and to decrease the incidence of lung cancer in high-risk patients have not been successful. As example, the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study actually showed an increase in lung cancer among smokers with dietary supplementation of beta-carotene. (See "Chemoprevention of lung cancer".)
SCREENING — The diagnosis of lung cancer is primarily based upon evaluation of individuals with symptoms. Screening for lung cancer is not widely used, since no screening test (chest radiography, sputum cytology, or CT) has been shown to reduce mortality from lung cancer.
Prospective, single-arm observational studies have shown that a large percentage of lung cancers detected by CT screening are early stage tumors, which have a favorable prognosis. However, the apparent survival improvement may be due to the biases inherent with screening. Randomized controlled trials of various screening strategies are underway in the United States and Europe. (See "Screening for lung cancer".)
PATHOLOGY — The World Health Organization classification for primary lung cancer recognizes four major histologic cell types [10]. (See "Pathology of lung malignancies".)
Approximate frequencies of these are as follows [11]:
• Adenocarcinoma (including bronchioloalveolar carcinoma) — 38 percent (figure 3 and figure 4)
• Squamous cell carcinoma — 20 percent (figure 5A-E)
• Large cell carcinoma — 5 percent (figure 6A-B)
• Small cell carcinoma 13 percent (figure 7A-B)
• Other non-small cell carcinomas, which cannot be further classified (18 percent)
• Other (6 percent)
The relative incidence of adenocarcinoma has risen dramatically, and there has been a corresponding decrease in the incidence of other types of NSCLC and SCLC. The increased incidence of adenocarcinoma is thought to be due to the introduction of low-tar filter cigarettes in the 1960s, although this relationship is unproven.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS — The majority of patients with lung cancer have advanced disease at clinical presentation (table 1). This may reflect the aggressive biology of the disease, the frequent absence of symptoms until locally advanced or metastatic disease is present, and the lack of an effective screening test. (See "Screening for lung cancer".)
Symptoms may result from local effects of the tumor, from regional or distant spread, or from distant effects not related to metastases (paraneoplastic syndromes). Approximately three-fourths of patients have one or more symptoms at the time of diagnosis.
Intrathoracic effects of the cancer — There are a wide range of symptoms due to the intrathoracic effects of the cancer, the most common of which are cough, hemoptysis, chest pain, and dyspnea.
• Cough — Cough is present in 50 to 75 percent of lung cancer patients at presentation and occurs most frequently in patients with squamous cell and small cell carcinomas, because of their tendency to involve central airways [12,13]. The new onset of cough in a smoker or former smoker should raise suspicion that lung cancer is present. Bronchorrhea or cough productive of large volumes of thin, mucoid secretions may be a feature of bronchoalveolar cell carcinoma and usually indicates advanced disease. (See "Evaluation of subacute and chronic cough in adults" and "Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma".)
Both NSCLC and SCLC often cause a post-obstructive pneumonia. However, bronchiectasis is uncommon because lung cancer usually progresses too rapidly for bronchiectasis to develop. In contrast, slow-growing neoplasms such as carcinoid tumor or hamartoma are more likely to present with bronchiectasis. (See "Bronchial carcinoid tumors".)
• Hemoptysis — Hemoptysis is reported by 25 to 50 percent of patients who are diagnosed with lung cancer, although bronchitis is the most common cause of this symptom [12,13]. Any amount of hemoptysis can be alarming to the patient, and large volumes of hemoptysis may cause asphyxia. (See "Etiology and evaluation of hemoptysis in adults" and "Causes and management of massive hemoptysis in adults".)
In a patient with hemoptysis, the likelihood of lung cancer varies from 3 to 34 percent in different series depending upon the patient's age and smoking history [14]. In smokers with hemoptysis and a nonsuspicious or normal chest radiograph, bronchoscopy will diagnose lung cancer in about 5 percent of cases [15].
• Chest pain — Chest pain is present in approximately 20 percent of patients presenting with lung cancer [13,16]. It can be quite variable in character and is more common in younger compared to older patients. Pain is typically present on the same side of the chest as the primary tumor.
Dull, aching, persistent pain may occur from mediastinal, pleural, or chest wall extension, but the presence of pain does not necessarily preclude resectability. Although pleuritic pain may be the result of direct pleural involvement, obstructive pneumonitis or a pulmonary embolus related to a hypercoagulable state may also cause chest pain.
• Dyspnea — Shortness of breath is a common symptom in patients with lung cancer at the time of diagnosis, occurring in approximately 25 percent of cases [12,13]. Dyspnea may be due to extrinsic or intraluminal airway obstruction, obstructive pneumonitis or atelectasis, lymphangitic tumor spread, tumor emboli, pneumothorax, pleural effusion, or pericardial effusion with tamponade. Partial obstruction of a bronchus may cause a localized wheeze, heard by the patient or by the clinician on auscultation, while stridor can result from obstruction of larger airways.
Pulmonary function testing may be useful in a patient with dyspnea due to lung cancer, as it may show flattening of the expiratory and/or inspiratory flow-volume loop from presence of tumor in the trachea itself (figure 8), from extrinsic compression, or from vocal cord paralysis. (See "Overview of pulmonary function testing in adults".)
Unilateral paralysis of the diaphragm may be due to damage of the phrenic nerve (figure 9). Patients may be asymptomatic or report shortness of breath. In one series, lung cancer was the most common neoplasm affecting the phrenic nerve, although malignancy accounted for only 4 percent of patients presenting with diaphragmatic paralysis [17]. (See "Causes and diagnosis of bilateral and unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis".)
• Hoarseness — The differential diagnosis of persistent hoarseness in a smoker includes both laryngeal cancer and lung cancer. In patients with lung cancer, this is due to malignancy involving the recurrent laryngeal nerve along its course under the arch of the aorta and back to the larynx [18,19]. (See "Hoarseness in adults" and "Diagnosis and staging of head and neck cancer".)
• Pleural involvement — Extension of tumor into the visceral pleura is stage T2 and into the parietal pleura is T3. The presence of carcinoma cells in the pleural fluid classifies the lung cancer as M1a (stage IV) in the seventh edition TNM staging system (table 2). Pleural involvement can manifest as pleural thickening without pleural effusion (figure 10). (See "Diagnosis and staging of non-small cell lung cancer" and "Tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging system for non-small cell lung cancer".)
Patients with malignant effusions are considered incurable and managed palliatively. Although malignant pleural effusions can cause dyspnea and cough, approximately one-fourth of patients who have lung cancer and pleural metastases are asymptomatic [20].
Although a malignant pleural effusion precludes curative resection, not all pleural effusions in patients with lung cancer are malignant. A benign pleural effusion may occur in a patient with a resectable lung cancer due to lymphatic obstruction, post-obstructive pneumonitis, or atelectasis.
In a patient with a pleural effusion, the presence of tumor needs to be confirmed or excluded so that a chance for curative resection is not missed. Series report that 5 to 14 percent of patients with NSCLC and an ipsilateral pleural effusion have resectable disease [21,22]. Surgical thoracoscopy or medical pleuroscopy should follow two or three negative cytologies to further evaluate the pleural space prior to surgical resection of a primary lesion.
Malignant effusions are typically exudates and may be serous, serosanguineous, or grossly bloody. The yield of pleural fluid cytology after a single thoracentesis in patients with documented pleural involvement is about 60 percent, and the yield rises to 85 percent with three thoracenteses [23]. A prospective series evaluated cytologic yield from pleural fluid aliquots of 10 mL, 60 mL, and ≥150 mL [24]. The sensitivity for diagnosing malignancy in the pleural fluid was lower for volumes of 10 mL compared to the higher volumes. Closed pleural biopsy adds little to the yield of cytologic examination. In a patient with a suspected malignancy, repeat pleural fluid cytology with or without pleural biopsy is appropriate if the initial study is negative. (See "Diagnostic evaluation of a pleural effusion in adults".)
During the course of their disease, approximately 10 to 15 percent of patients who have lung cancer will have malignant pleural effusions (figure 11A-B) [25]. The management of patients with malignant pleural effusions is discussed separately. (See "Management of malignant pleural effusions".)
• Superior vena cava syndrome — Obstruction of the superior vena cava (SVC) causes symptoms that commonly include a sensation of fullness in the head and dyspnea. Cough, pain, and dysphagia are less frequent. Physical findings include dilated neck veins, a prominent venous pattern on the chest, facial edema, and a plethoric appearance (figure 12). The chest radiograph typically shows widening of the mediastinum or a right hilar mass. CT can often identify the cause, level of obstruction, and extent of collateral venous drainage [26].
The SVC syndrome is more common in patients with SCLC than NSCLC. For most patients who have SVC syndrome secondary to lung cancer, the symptoms resolve after treatment of the mediastinal tumor. The pathophysiology and treatment options for the management of patients with SVC syndrome are discussed separately. (See "Malignancy-related superior vena cava syndrome".)
• Pancoast's syndrome — Lung cancers arising in the superior sulcus cause a characteristic Pancoast's syndrome manifested by pain (usually in the shoulder, and less commonly in the forearm, scapula, and fingers), Horner's syndrome, bony destruction, and atrophy of hand muscles. (See "Horner's syndrome".)
Pancoast's syndrome is most commonly caused by NSCLC (typically squamous cell) and only rarely by SCLC (figure 13A-B). The presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with Pancoast's syndrome due to superior sulcus tumors is discussed in detail elsewhere. (See "Pancoast's syndrome and superior (pulmonary) sulcus tumors".)
Extrathoracic metastases — Lung cancer can spread to any part of the body tissue. Metastatic spread may result in the presenting symptoms or may occur later in the course of disease.
The staging at presentation of patients with known or suspected lung cancer is reviewed elsewhere. (See "Diagnosis and staging of non-small cell lung cancer" and "Tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging system for non-small cell lung cancer".)
The most frequent sites of distant metastasis are the liver, adrenal glands, bones, and brain.
• Liver — Symptomatic hepatic metastases are uncommon early in the course of disease. Asymptomatic liver metastases may be detected at presentation by liver enzyme abnormalities, CT (figure 14), or PET (figure 15). Among patients with otherwise resectable NSCLC in the chest, CT evidence of liver metastasis has been identified in approximately 3 percent of cases [27]. PET or integrated PET-CT identifies unsuspected metastases in the liver or adrenal glands in about 4 percent of patients [28,29]. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
The incidence of liver metastases is much higher later in the course of the disease. Autopsy studies have shown that hepatic metastases are present in more than 50 percent of patients with either NSCLC or SCLC [30,31].
• Bone — Metastasis from lung cancer to bone is frequently symptomatic. Pain in the back, chest, or extremity, and elevated levels of serum alkaline phosphatase are usually present in patients who have bone metastasis. The serum calcium may be elevated due to extensive bone disease.
PET and PET-CT have improved the ability to identify metastases to many organs, including bone, with greater sensitivity than CT or bone scan [32]. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
Approximately 20 percent of patients with NSCLC have bone metastases on presentation [33]. An osteolytic radiographic appearance is more frequent than an osteoblastic one, and the most common sites of involvement are the vertebral bodies (figure 16). Bone metastases are even more frequent in SCLC and can be found in 30 to 40 percent of patients (figure 17) [34].
• Adrenal — The adrenal glands are a frequent site of metastasis but such metastases are only rarely symptomatic. Concern about adrenal metastasis usually occurs when a unilateral mass is found by staging CT in a patient with a known or suspected lung cancer.
Only a fraction of adrenal masses detected on staging scans represent metastasis. This was illustrated by a series of 330 patients with operable NSCLC, in which 32 (10 percent) had an isolated adrenal mass [35]. Only 8 of these 32 (25 percent) were malignant while the remainder had benign lesions (adenomas, nodular hyperplasia, hemorrhagic cysts). Conversely, a negative imaging study does not exclude adrenal metastases. A study of patients with SCLC found that 17 percent of adrenal biopsies showed metastatic involvement despite having a normal CT scan [36].
The lack of specificity of an initial CT identifying an adrenal mass creates a special problem in patients with an otherwise resectable lung cancer. In this situation, PET may be particularly useful in distinguishing a benign from malignant adrenal mass (figure 18) [37]. Other procedures that may be useful in excluding a metastasis include an MRI consistent with a benign adenoma or a negative needle biopsy. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
Involvement of the adrenal glands is more frequent in patients with widely disseminated disease. In autopsy series, adrenal gland metastases have been identified in about 40 percent of patients with lung cancer [30].
• Brain — Neurologic manifestations of lung cancer include metastases and paraneoplastic syndromes. (See 'Paraneoplastic phenomena' below.)
Symptoms from central nervous system metastasis are similar to those with other tumors and include headache, vomiting, visual field loss, hemiparesis, cranial nerve deficit, and seizures. (See "Overview of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of patients with brain metastases".)
In patients with NSCLC, the frequency of brain metastasis is greatest with adenocarcinoma and least with squamous cell carcinoma. The risk for brain metastasis increases with larger primary tumor size and the presence of regional node involvement (figure 19) [38]. For carefully selected patients, sequential resection may be feasible in cases that have operable NSCLC in the chest and a solitary brain metastasis. (See "Treatment of brain metastases in favorable prognosis patients".)
In patients with SCLC, metastasis to brain is present in approximately 20 to 30 percent of patients at presentation [39]. Without prophylactic irradiation, relapse in the brain occurs in about one-half of patients within two years. Randomized trials have shown that the frequency of brain metastases can be significantly reduced with prophylactic cranial radiation. (See "Prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small cell lung cancer".)
Paraneoplastic phenomena — Paraneoplastic effects of tumor are remote effects that are not related to the direct invasion, obstruction, or metastasis.
• Hypercalcemia — Hypercalcemia in patients with lung cancer may arise from a bony metastasis or less commonly tumor secretion of a parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), calcitriol or other cytokines, including osteoclast activating factors. (See "Hypercalcemia of malignancy".)
In one study of 1149 consecutive lung cancers, 6 percent had hypercalcemia [40]. Among those with hypercalcemia, squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and SCLC were responsible in 51, 22, and 15 percent of cases, respectively. Most patients with hypercalcemia have advanced disease (stage III or IV) and a median survival of a few months [40].
Symptoms of hypercalcemia include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, lethargy, polyuria, polydipsia, and dehydration. Confusion and coma are late manifestations, as are renal failure and nephrocalcinosis. (See "Clinical manifestations of hypercalcemia".)
Symptomatic patients who have serum calcium of 12 mg/dL (3 mmol/L) or higher require treatment that includes hydration and bisphosphonate [41]. The treatment of hypercalcemia due to malignancy is discussed in detail separately. (See "Hypercalcemia of malignancy" and "Treatment of hypercalcemia".)
• SIADH secretion — The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) is frequently caused by SCLC and results in hyponatremia. Approximately 10 percent of patients who have SCLC exhibit SIADH [42,43]. SCLC accounts for approximately 75 percent of all malignancy-related of SIADH. (See "Diagnosis of hyponatremia" and "Pathophysiology and etiology of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)".)
The severity of symptoms is related to the degree of hyponatremia and the rapidity of the fall in serum sodium. Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. Cerebral edema can occur with the onset of hyponatremia is rapid. Symptoms caused by cerebral edema may include irritability, restlessness, personality changes, confusion, coma, seizures, and respiratory arrest. (See "Manifestations of hyponatremia and hypernatremia", section on 'Hyponatremia'.)
The treatment of SIADH focuses on treating the malignancy. In the majority of patients with SCLC, the hyponatremia will resolve within weeks of starting chemotherapy. Chronic hyponatremia or that of unclear duration may be treated with normal saline infusion to euvolemia, fluid restriction and demeclocycline, or a vasopressin-receptor antagonist. Acute and severe hyponatremia may be carefully treated with hypertonic (3 percent) saline infusion for a correction of 1 to 2 mmol per liter per hour with a correction of not more than 8 to 10 mmol per liter in 24 hours [44]. (See "Treatment of hyponatremia: Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) and reset osmostat".)
• Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy — Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (HPO) is defined by the presence of clubbing (figure 20) and periosteal proliferation of the tubular bones associated with lung cancer or other lung disease. Clinically, HPO is characterized by a symmetrical, painful arthropathy that usually involves the ankles, knees, wrists, and elbows. The metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones may also be involved. (See "Malignancy and rheumatic disorders", section on 'Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy'.)
A radiograph of the long bones (ie, tibia and fibula) shows characteristic periosteal new bone formation in patients with HPO. An isotope bone scan or PET typically demonstrates diffuse uptake by the long bones (figure 21A-B).
The symptoms of HPO may resolve after tumor resection. For patients who are not operable, the usual treatment is with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents or a bisphosphonate [45].
• Dermatomyositis and polymyositis — Dermatomyositis and polymyositis are two distinct forms of inflammatory myopathy, both of which are manifested clinically by muscle weakness. These inflammatory myopathies can be the presenting symptom in patients with lung cancer or can develop later in the course of disease.
In addition to lung cancer, other frequent primary sites associated with these disorders include the ovary, cervix, pancreas, bladder, and stomach. The incidence of malignancy and the role of screening for cancer in patients with dermatomyositis or polymyositis is discussed elsewhere. (See "Malignancy in dermatomyositis and polymyositis",)
• Hematologic manifestations — A number of hematologic abnormalities are seen in patients with lung cancer. These include the following:
• Anemia — Anemia is frequent in patients with lung cancer and can contribute to fatigue and dyspnea. As an example, in one series 40 percent of untreated patients had a hemoglobin ≤12 g/dL, while the incidence of anemia was 80 percent in those on chemotherapy [46]. Anemia may be due to any of a number of causes, including treatment.
(See "Hematologic consequences of malignancy: Anemia" and "Role of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in the treatment of anemia in patients with cancer".)
• Leukocytosis — In one series, tumor-associated leukocytosis was found in 15 percent of patients with lung cancer. Nearly all had NSCLC, and the leukocytosis was thought to be due to overproduction of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor [47]. Leukocytosis in association with lung cancer is associated with a poor prognosis and has also been associated with hypercalcemia [40,47].
(See "Causes of neutrophilia", section on 'Secondary neutrophilia'.)
• Thrombocytosis — Thrombocytosis is common and maybe present in as many as 14 percent of patients with lung cancer at presentation [48]. Thrombocytosis at presentation has been identified as an independent predictor of shortened survival [49].
- Eosinophilia — Eosinophilia in tissue or blood is rare, but has been reported in patients with large cell carcinoma.
(See "Approach to the patient with eosinophilia", section on 'Hematologic and neoplastic disorders'.)
• Hypercoagulable disorders — A variety of hypercoagulable disorders have been associated with lung cancer and other malignancies. These hypercoagulable disorders include:
- Trousseau's syndrome (migratory superficial thrombophlebitis)
- Deep venous thrombosis and thromboembolism
- Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy
- Thrombotic microangiopathy
- Nonthrombotic microangiopathy.
These complications and their management are discussed separately. (See "Hypercoagulable disorders associated with malignancy".)
• Cushing's syndrome — Ectopic production of adrenal corticotropin (ACTH) can cause Cushing's syndrome. Patients typically present with muscle weakness, weight loss, hypertension, hirsutism, and osteoporosis. Hypokalemic alkalosis and hyperglycemia are usually present. (See "Clinical manifestations of Cushing's syndrome".)
Cushing's syndrome is relatively common in patients with SCLC and with carcinoid tumors of the lung, as well as extrathoracic malignancies [50]. Patients with Cushing's syndrome and SCLC appear to have a worse prognosis than patients with SCLC without Cushing's syndrome [50-52]. (See "Establishing the cause of Cushing's syndrome" and "Bronchial carcinoid tumors", section on 'Cushing's syndrome'.)
• Neurologic — Lung cancer is the most common cancer associated with paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes; typically these are associated with SCLC. Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes are thought to be immune-mediated, and autoantibodies have been identified in a number of instances. The various neurologic paraneoplastic syndromes and their pathophysiology are discussed elsewhere. (See "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting brain and cranial nerves" and "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting peripheral nerve and muscle" and "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia".)
These diverse neurologic manifestations include, but are not limited to, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), cerebellar ataxia, sensory neuropathy, limbic encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, autonomic neuropathy, retinopathy, and opsomyoclonus [53].
The most common of these is LEMS, which may be seen in approximately 3 percent of patients with SCLC (figure 22) [54]. The neurologic symptoms of LEMS precede the diagnosis of SCLC in more than 80 percent of cases, often by months to years. (See "Clinical features and diagnosis of Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome" and "Treatment of Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome", section on 'Evaluation for malignancy'.)
As many as 70 percent of patients who have SCLC and an associated paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome have limited stage disease [55]. The finding of a paraneoplastic autoantibody in patients presenting with a neurologic syndrome should lead to an evaluation for malignancy. A CT of the chest is indicated in current or former smokers who have a suspected paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome. If the CT chest is negative, then PET may be useful in identifying the location of a neoplasm. Even subtle abnormalities of the lungs or mediastinum require biopsy in this situation (figure 23A-B) [56].
Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes generally do not improve with immunosuppressive treatment. However, symptoms may stabilize with response of the underlying neoplasm to treatment.
SUMMARY — Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide for both men and women.
• Cigarette smoking is responsible for approximately 90 percent of cases of lung cancer. Thus prevention of smoking and cessation of smoking offer the most important route to decreasing the morbidity and mortality associated with this disease. (See "Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for lung cancer".)
• Lung cancer is divided into several histologic types. The most important distinction is between non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC). (See "Pathology of lung malignancies".)
• The clinical manifestations of lung cancer can be due to intrathoracic effects of the tumor (eg, cough, hemoptysis, pleural disease), extrathoracic metastases (most commonly, liver, bone, brain), or paraneoplastic phenomena (eg, hypercalcemia, Cushing's syndrome, hypercoagulability disorders, various neurologic syndromes). (See 'Clinical manifestations' above.)
• The initial evaluation, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer is presented separately. (See "Overview of the initial evaluation, treatment and prognosis of lung cancer".)
Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement
REFERENCES
1. Parkin, DM, Bray, F, Ferlay, J, Pisani, P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55:74.
2. Jemal, A, Siegel, R, Ward, E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin 2009; 59:225.
3. Jemal, A, Thun, MJ, Ries, LA, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2005, featuring trends in lung cancer, tobacco use, and tobacco control. J Natl Cancer Inst 2008; 100:1672.
4. Alberg, AJ, Samet, JM. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Chest 2003; 123:21S.
5. Doll, R, Peto, R, Boreham, J, et al. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ 2004; 328:1519.
6. Kaufman, EL, Jacobson, JS, Hershman, DL, et al. Effect of breast cancer radiotherapy and cigarette smoking on risk of second primary lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26:392.
7. Hodgson, DC, Koh, ES, Tran, TH, et al. Individualized estimates of second cancer risks after contemporary radiation therapy for Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer 2007; 110:2576.
8. Lorigan, P, Radford, J, Howell, A, Thatcher, N. Lung cancer after treatment for Hodgkin's lymphoma: a systematic review. Lancet Oncol 2005; 6:773.
9. Hubbard, R, Venn, A, Lewis, S, Britton, J. Lung cancer and cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. A population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:5.
10. Travis, WD, Brambilla, E, Müller-Hermelink, HK, et al. Pathology and Genetics: Tumours of the Lung, Pleura, Thymus and Heart. Lyon, IARC, 2004.
11. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2004/results_merged/sect_15_lung_bronchus.pdf.
12. Hyde, L, Hyde, CI. Clinical manifestations of lung cancer. Chest 1974; 65:299.
13. Chute, CG, Greenberg, ER, Baron, J, et al. Presenting conditions of 1539 population-based lung cancer patients by cell type and stage in New Hampshire and Vermont. Cancer 1985; 56:2107.
14. Hirshberg, B, Biran, I, Glazer, M, Kramer, MR. Hemoptysis: Etiology, evaluation, and outcome in a tertiary referral hospital. Chest 1997; 112:440.
15. Colice, GL. Detecting lung cancer as a cause of hemoptysis in patients with a normal chest radiograph: bronchoscopy vs. CT. Chest 1997; 111:877.
16. Kuo, CW, Chen, YM, Chao, JY, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer in very young and very old patients. Chest 2000; 117:354.
17. Piehler, JM, Pairolero, PC, Gracey, DR, Bernatz, PE. Unexplained diaphragmatic paralysis: a harbinger of malignant disease? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982; 84:861.
18. Ramadan, HH, Wax, MK, Avery, S. Outcome and changing cause of unilateral vocal cord paralysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998; 118:199.
19. Chen, HC, Jen, YM, Wang, CH, et al. Etiology of vocal cord paralysis. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2007; 69:167.
20. Chernow, B, Sahn, SA. Carcinomatous involvement of the pleura: an analysis of 96 patients. Am J Med 1977; 63:695.
21. Decker, DA, Dines, DE, Payne, WS, et al. The significance of a cytologically negative pleural effusion in bronchogenic carcinoma. Chest 1978; 74:640.
22. Roberts, JR, Blum, MG, Arildsen, R et al. Prospective comparison of radiologic, thoracoscopic, and pathologic staging in patients with early non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 1999; 68:1154.
23. Prakash, UB, Reiman, HM. Comparison of needle biopsy with cytologic analysis for the evaluation of pleural effusion: analysis of 414 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1985; 60:158.
24. Swiderek, J, Morcos, S, Donthireddy, V, et al. Prospective study to determine the volume of pleural fluid required to diagnose malignancy. Chest 2010; 137:68.
25. Sahn, SA. Malignancy metastatic to the pleura. Clin Chest Med 1998; 19:351.
26. Eren, S, Karaman, A, Okur, A. The superior vena cava syndrome caused by malignant disease. Imaging with multi-detector row CT. Eur J Radiol 2006; 59:93.
27. Hillers, TK, Sauve, MD, Guyatt, GH. Analysis of published studies on the detection of extrathoracic metastases in patients presumed to have operable non-small cell lung cancer. Thorax 1994; 49:14.
28. van Tinteren, H, Hoekstra, OS, Smit, EF, et al. Effectiveness of positron emission tomography in the preoperativeassessment of patients with suspected non-small-cell lung cancer: the PLUS multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 359:1388.
29. De Wever, W, Vankan, Y, Stroobants, S, Verschakelen, J. Detection of extrapulmonary lesions with integrated PET/CT in the staging of lung cancer. Eur Respir J 2007; 29:995.
30. Stenbygaard, LE, Sorensen, JB, Olsen, JE. Metastatic pattern at autopsy in non-resectable adenocarcinoma of the lung--a study from a cohort of 259 consecutive patients treated with chemotherapy. Acta Oncol 1997; 36:301.
31. Jereczek, B, Jassem, J, Karnicka-Mlodkowska, H, et al. Autopsy findings in small cell lung cancer. Neoplasma 1996; 43:133.
32. Cheran, SK, Herndon JE, 2nd, Patz, EF Jr. Comparison of whole-body FDG-PET to bone scan for detection of bone metastases in patients with a new diagnosis of lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2004; 44:317.
33. Toloza, EM, Harpole, L, McCrory, DC. Noninvasive staging of non-small cell lung cancer: a review of the current evidence. Chest 2003; 123:137S.
34. Schumacher, T, Brink, I, Mix, M, et al. FDG-PET imaging for the staging and follow-up of small cell lung cancer. Eur J Nucl Med 2001; 28:483.
35. Oliver, TW Jr, Bernardino, ME, Miller, JI, et al. Isolated adrenal masses in nonsmall-cell bronchogenic carcinoma. Radiology 1984; 153:217.
36. Pagani JJ. Normal adrenal glands in small cell lung carcinoma: CT-guided biopsy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1983; 140:949.
37. Erasmus, JJ, Patz, EF Jr, McAdams, HP, et al. Evaluation of adrenal masses in patients with bronchogenic carcinoma using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168:1357.
38. Mujoomdar, A, Austin, JH, Malhotra, R, et al. Clinical predictors of metastatic disease to the brain from non-small cell lung carcinoma: primary tumor size, cell type, and lymph node metastases. Radiology 2007; 242:882.
39. Doyle, TJ. Brain metastasis in the natural history of small-cell lung cancer: 1972-1979. Cancer 1982; 50:752.
40. Hiraki, A, Ueoka, H, Takata, I, et al. Hypercalcemia-leukocytosis syndrome associated with lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2004; 43:301.
41. Thomas, L, Kwok, Y, Edelman, MJ. Management of paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2004; 5:51.
42. List, AF, Hainsworth, JD, Davis, BW, et al. The syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) in small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 1986; 4:1191.
43. Hansen, O, Sorensen, P, Hansen, KH. The occurrence of hyponatremia in SCLC and the influence on prognosis: a retrospective study of 453 patients treated in a single institution in a 10-year period. Lung Cancer 2010; 68:111.
44. Ellison, DH, Berl, T. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:2064.
45. Amital, H, Applbaum, YH, Vasiliev, L, Rubinow, A. Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy: control of pain and symptoms with pamidronate. Clin Rheumatol 2004; 23:330.
46. Kosmidis, P, Krzakowski, M. Anemia profiles in patients with lung cancer: what have we learned from the European Cancer Anaemia Survey (ECAS)?. Lung Cancer 2005; 50:401.
47. Kasuga, I, Makino, S, Kiyokawa, H, et al. Tumor-related leukocytosis is linked with poor prognosis in patients with lung carcinoma. Cancer 2001; 92:2399.
48. Hamilton, W, Peters, TJ, Round, A, Sharp, D. What are the clinical features of lung cancer before the diagnosis is made? A population based case-control study. Thorax 2005; 60:1059.
49. Aoe, K, Hiraki, A, Ueoka, H, et al. Thrombocytosis as a useful prognostic indicator in patients with lung cancer. Respiration 2004; 71:170.
50. Ilias, I, Torpy, DJ, Pacak, K, et al. Cushing's syndrome due to ectopic corticotropin secretion: twenty years' experience at the National Institutes of Health. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:4955.
51. Delisle, L, Boyer, MJ, Warr, D, et al. Ectopic corticotropin syndrome and small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Clinical features, outcome, and complications. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153:746.
52. Shepherd, FA, Laskey, J, Evans, WK, et al. Cushing's syndrome associated with ectopic corticotropin production and small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 1992; 10:21.
53. Honnorat, J, Antoine, JC. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2007; 2:22.
54. Elrington, GM, Murray, NM, Spiro, SG, Newsom-Davis, J. Neurological paraneoplastic syndromes in patients with small cell lung cancer. A prospective survey of 150 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54:764.
55. Sillevis Smitt, SP, Grefkens, J, de Leeuw, B, van den Bent, M, et al. Survival and outcome in 73 anti-Hu positive patients with paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy. J Neurol 2002; 249:745.
56. Younes-Mhenni, S, Janier, MF, Cinotti, L, et al. FDG-PET improves tumour detection in patients with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Brain 2004; 127:2331.
Overview of the risk factors, pathology, and clinical manifestations of lung cancer
Author
David E Midthun, MD Section Editor
James R Jett, MD Deputy Editor
Michael E Ross, MD
Last literature review version 18.2: May 2010 | This topic last updated: May 6, 2010 (More)
INTRODUCTION — Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide for both men and women, causing approximately 1.2 million deaths per year [1]. In the United States in 2010, there will be about 220,000 new cases of lung cancer and 160,000 deaths [2]. In contrast, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers combined will be responsible for only 118,000 deaths.
Both the absolute and relative frequency of lung cancer has risen dramatically. As an example, the age-adjusted death rates from lung cancer were similar to that of pancreatic cancer prior to 1930 for men and prior to 1960 for women (figure 1 and figure 2) [2]. Around 1953, lung cancer became the most common cause of cancer deaths in men, and in 1985, it became the leading cause of cancer deaths in women. Lung cancer deaths have begun to decline in men, reflecting a decrease in smoking [3]. The rise in the death rate in women appears to have reached a plateau, although almost one-half of all lung cancer deaths now occur in women. (See "Women and lung cancer".)
The term lung cancer, or bronchogenic carcinoma, refers to malignancies that originate in the airways or pulmonary parenchyma. Approximately 95 percent of all lung cancers are classified as either small cell lung cancer (SCLC) or non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). This distinction is essential for staging, treatment, and prognosis. Other cell types comprise about 5 percent of malignancies arising in the lung.
This discussion will present an overview of the risk factors, pathology, and clinical manifestations of NSCLC and SCLC. An overview of the initial evaluation, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer is presented separately. (See "Overview of the initial evaluation, treatment and prognosis of lung cancer".)
RISK FACTORS — A number of environmental and life-style factors have been associated with the subsequent development of lung cancer, of which cigarette smoking is the most important. The risk factors associated with the development of lung cancer are discussed in detail separately. (See "Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for lung cancer".)
Smoking — The primary risk factor for the development of lung cancer is cigarette smoking, which is estimated to account for approximately 90 percent of all lung cancers [4]. The risk of developing lung cancer for a current smoker of one pack per day for 40 years is approximately 20 times that of someone who has never smoked. Factors that increase the risk of developing lung cancer in smokers include the extent of smoking and exposure to other carcinogenic factors, such as asbestos.
Thus, the most important aspects of lung cancer prevention are preventing people from starting to smoke and inducing those who already smoke to stop. In individuals who do quit smoking, the risk of developing lung cancer gradually falls for about 15 years before it levels off and remains about twice that of someone who never smoked [5]. (See "Management of smoking cessation in adults".)
Radiation therapy — Radiation therapy (RT) can increase the risk of a second primary lung cancer in patients who have been treated for other malignancies.
In women who receive RT following a mastectomy for breast cancer, there appears to be an increased risk of lung cancer among smokers [6]. In a retrospective tumor registry study of 113 breast cancer patients who had a second primary lung cancer and 364 controls, there was an increased risk of a second primary lung cancer among women who had smoked and received postoperative RT. The risk was more pronounced for cancers in the ipsilateral lung. Similarly, RT for Hodgkin lymphoma has been associated with an increased risk of secondary lung cancer [7,8].
Improved RT techniques limit the dose of radiation to nonmalignant tissue, and contemporary equipment and dose planning is thought to significantly reduce the risk for secondary lung cancer.
Other factors — A number of other factors may affect the risk of developing lung cancer:
• Environmental toxins — Environmental factors have been associated with an increased risk for developing lung cancer. These include exposure to second-hand smoke, asbestos, radon, metals (arsenic, chromium, and nickel), ionizing radiation, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [4]. (See "Secondhand smoke exposure: Effects in adults".)
• Pulmonary fibrosis — Several studies have shown that the risk for lung cancer is increased about sevenfold patients with pulmonary fibrosis [9]. This increased risk appears to be independent of smoking. (See "Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias: Clinical manifestations and pathology".)
• HIV infection — The incidence of lung cancer among individuals infected with HIV appears to be increased compared to that seen in uninfected controls. (See "HIV infection and lung cancer".)
• Genetic factors — Genetic factors can affect both the risk for and prognosis from lung cancer. Although the genetic basis of lung cancer is still being elucidated, there is a clearly established familial risk. Specific genetic markers associated with the development of lung cancer and its prognosis are discussed elsewhere. (See "Molecular markers in non-small cell lung cancer".)
• Dietary factors — Epidemiologic evidence has suggested that various dietary factors (antioxidants, cruciferous vegetables, phytoestrogens) may reduce the risk of lung cancer, but the role of these factors is not well established. Attempts to confirm these epidemiologic findings and to decrease the incidence of lung cancer in high-risk patients have not been successful. As example, the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study actually showed an increase in lung cancer among smokers with dietary supplementation of beta-carotene. (See "Chemoprevention of lung cancer".)
SCREENING — The diagnosis of lung cancer is primarily based upon evaluation of individuals with symptoms. Screening for lung cancer is not widely used, since no screening test (chest radiography, sputum cytology, or CT) has been shown to reduce mortality from lung cancer.
Prospective, single-arm observational studies have shown that a large percentage of lung cancers detected by CT screening are early stage tumors, which have a favorable prognosis. However, the apparent survival improvement may be due to the biases inherent with screening. Randomized controlled trials of various screening strategies are underway in the United States and Europe. (See "Screening for lung cancer".)
PATHOLOGY — The World Health Organization classification for primary lung cancer recognizes four major histologic cell types [10]. (See "Pathology of lung malignancies".)
Approximate frequencies of these are as follows [11]:
• Adenocarcinoma (including bronchioloalveolar carcinoma) — 38 percent (figure 3 and figure 4)
• Squamous cell carcinoma — 20 percent (figure 5A-E)
• Large cell carcinoma — 5 percent (figure 6A-B)
• Small cell carcinoma 13 percent (figure 7A-B)
• Other non-small cell carcinomas, which cannot be further classified (18 percent)
• Other (6 percent)
The relative incidence of adenocarcinoma has risen dramatically, and there has been a corresponding decrease in the incidence of other types of NSCLC and SCLC. The increased incidence of adenocarcinoma is thought to be due to the introduction of low-tar filter cigarettes in the 1960s, although this relationship is unproven.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS — The majority of patients with lung cancer have advanced disease at clinical presentation (table 1). This may reflect the aggressive biology of the disease, the frequent absence of symptoms until locally advanced or metastatic disease is present, and the lack of an effective screening test. (See "Screening for lung cancer".)
Symptoms may result from local effects of the tumor, from regional or distant spread, or from distant effects not related to metastases (paraneoplastic syndromes). Approximately three-fourths of patients have one or more symptoms at the time of diagnosis.
Intrathoracic effects of the cancer — There are a wide range of symptoms due to the intrathoracic effects of the cancer, the most common of which are cough, hemoptysis, chest pain, and dyspnea.
• Cough — Cough is present in 50 to 75 percent of lung cancer patients at presentation and occurs most frequently in patients with squamous cell and small cell carcinomas, because of their tendency to involve central airways [12,13]. The new onset of cough in a smoker or former smoker should raise suspicion that lung cancer is present. Bronchorrhea or cough productive of large volumes of thin, mucoid secretions may be a feature of bronchoalveolar cell carcinoma and usually indicates advanced disease. (See "Evaluation of subacute and chronic cough in adults" and "Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma".)
Both NSCLC and SCLC often cause a post-obstructive pneumonia. However, bronchiectasis is uncommon because lung cancer usually progresses too rapidly for bronchiectasis to develop. In contrast, slow-growing neoplasms such as carcinoid tumor or hamartoma are more likely to present with bronchiectasis. (See "Bronchial carcinoid tumors".)
• Hemoptysis — Hemoptysis is reported by 25 to 50 percent of patients who are diagnosed with lung cancer, although bronchitis is the most common cause of this symptom [12,13]. Any amount of hemoptysis can be alarming to the patient, and large volumes of hemoptysis may cause asphyxia. (See "Etiology and evaluation of hemoptysis in adults" and "Causes and management of massive hemoptysis in adults".)
In a patient with hemoptysis, the likelihood of lung cancer varies from 3 to 34 percent in different series depending upon the patient's age and smoking history [14]. In smokers with hemoptysis and a nonsuspicious or normal chest radiograph, bronchoscopy will diagnose lung cancer in about 5 percent of cases [15].
• Chest pain — Chest pain is present in approximately 20 percent of patients presenting with lung cancer [13,16]. It can be quite variable in character and is more common in younger compared to older patients. Pain is typically present on the same side of the chest as the primary tumor.
Dull, aching, persistent pain may occur from mediastinal, pleural, or chest wall extension, but the presence of pain does not necessarily preclude resectability. Although pleuritic pain may be the result of direct pleural involvement, obstructive pneumonitis or a pulmonary embolus related to a hypercoagulable state may also cause chest pain.
• Dyspnea — Shortness of breath is a common symptom in patients with lung cancer at the time of diagnosis, occurring in approximately 25 percent of cases [12,13]. Dyspnea may be due to extrinsic or intraluminal airway obstruction, obstructive pneumonitis or atelectasis, lymphangitic tumor spread, tumor emboli, pneumothorax, pleural effusion, or pericardial effusion with tamponade. Partial obstruction of a bronchus may cause a localized wheeze, heard by the patient or by the clinician on auscultation, while stridor can result from obstruction of larger airways.
Pulmonary function testing may be useful in a patient with dyspnea due to lung cancer, as it may show flattening of the expiratory and/or inspiratory flow-volume loop from presence of tumor in the trachea itself (figure 8), from extrinsic compression, or from vocal cord paralysis. (See "Overview of pulmonary function testing in adults".)
Unilateral paralysis of the diaphragm may be due to damage of the phrenic nerve (figure 9). Patients may be asymptomatic or report shortness of breath. In one series, lung cancer was the most common neoplasm affecting the phrenic nerve, although malignancy accounted for only 4 percent of patients presenting with diaphragmatic paralysis [17]. (See "Causes and diagnosis of bilateral and unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis".)
• Hoarseness — The differential diagnosis of persistent hoarseness in a smoker includes both laryngeal cancer and lung cancer. In patients with lung cancer, this is due to malignancy involving the recurrent laryngeal nerve along its course under the arch of the aorta and back to the larynx [18,19]. (See "Hoarseness in adults" and "Diagnosis and staging of head and neck cancer".)
• Pleural involvement — Extension of tumor into the visceral pleura is stage T2 and into the parietal pleura is T3. The presence of carcinoma cells in the pleural fluid classifies the lung cancer as M1a (stage IV) in the seventh edition TNM staging system (table 2). Pleural involvement can manifest as pleural thickening without pleural effusion (figure 10). (See "Diagnosis and staging of non-small cell lung cancer" and "Tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging system for non-small cell lung cancer".)
Patients with malignant effusions are considered incurable and managed palliatively. Although malignant pleural effusions can cause dyspnea and cough, approximately one-fourth of patients who have lung cancer and pleural metastases are asymptomatic [20].
Although a malignant pleural effusion precludes curative resection, not all pleural effusions in patients with lung cancer are malignant. A benign pleural effusion may occur in a patient with a resectable lung cancer due to lymphatic obstruction, post-obstructive pneumonitis, or atelectasis.
In a patient with a pleural effusion, the presence of tumor needs to be confirmed or excluded so that a chance for curative resection is not missed. Series report that 5 to 14 percent of patients with NSCLC and an ipsilateral pleural effusion have resectable disease [21,22]. Surgical thoracoscopy or medical pleuroscopy should follow two or three negative cytologies to further evaluate the pleural space prior to surgical resection of a primary lesion.
Malignant effusions are typically exudates and may be serous, serosanguineous, or grossly bloody. The yield of pleural fluid cytology after a single thoracentesis in patients with documented pleural involvement is about 60 percent, and the yield rises to 85 percent with three thoracenteses [23]. A prospective series evaluated cytologic yield from pleural fluid aliquots of 10 mL, 60 mL, and ≥150 mL [24]. The sensitivity for diagnosing malignancy in the pleural fluid was lower for volumes of 10 mL compared to the higher volumes. Closed pleural biopsy adds little to the yield of cytologic examination. In a patient with a suspected malignancy, repeat pleural fluid cytology with or without pleural biopsy is appropriate if the initial study is negative. (See "Diagnostic evaluation of a pleural effusion in adults".)
During the course of their disease, approximately 10 to 15 percent of patients who have lung cancer will have malignant pleural effusions (figure 11A-B) [25]. The management of patients with malignant pleural effusions is discussed separately. (See "Management of malignant pleural effusions".)
• Superior vena cava syndrome — Obstruction of the superior vena cava (SVC) causes symptoms that commonly include a sensation of fullness in the head and dyspnea. Cough, pain, and dysphagia are less frequent. Physical findings include dilated neck veins, a prominent venous pattern on the chest, facial edema, and a plethoric appearance (figure 12). The chest radiograph typically shows widening of the mediastinum or a right hilar mass. CT can often identify the cause, level of obstruction, and extent of collateral venous drainage [26].
The SVC syndrome is more common in patients with SCLC than NSCLC. For most patients who have SVC syndrome secondary to lung cancer, the symptoms resolve after treatment of the mediastinal tumor. The pathophysiology and treatment options for the management of patients with SVC syndrome are discussed separately. (See "Malignancy-related superior vena cava syndrome".)
• Pancoast's syndrome — Lung cancers arising in the superior sulcus cause a characteristic Pancoast's syndrome manifested by pain (usually in the shoulder, and less commonly in the forearm, scapula, and fingers), Horner's syndrome, bony destruction, and atrophy of hand muscles. (See "Horner's syndrome".)
Pancoast's syndrome is most commonly caused by NSCLC (typically squamous cell) and only rarely by SCLC (figure 13A-B). The presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with Pancoast's syndrome due to superior sulcus tumors is discussed in detail elsewhere. (See "Pancoast's syndrome and superior (pulmonary) sulcus tumors".)
Extrathoracic metastases — Lung cancer can spread to any part of the body tissue. Metastatic spread may result in the presenting symptoms or may occur later in the course of disease.
The staging at presentation of patients with known or suspected lung cancer is reviewed elsewhere. (See "Diagnosis and staging of non-small cell lung cancer" and "Tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging system for non-small cell lung cancer".)
The most frequent sites of distant metastasis are the liver, adrenal glands, bones, and brain.
• Liver — Symptomatic hepatic metastases are uncommon early in the course of disease. Asymptomatic liver metastases may be detected at presentation by liver enzyme abnormalities, CT (figure 14), or PET (figure 15). Among patients with otherwise resectable NSCLC in the chest, CT evidence of liver metastasis has been identified in approximately 3 percent of cases [27]. PET or integrated PET-CT identifies unsuspected metastases in the liver or adrenal glands in about 4 percent of patients [28,29]. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
The incidence of liver metastases is much higher later in the course of the disease. Autopsy studies have shown that hepatic metastases are present in more than 50 percent of patients with either NSCLC or SCLC [30,31].
• Bone — Metastasis from lung cancer to bone is frequently symptomatic. Pain in the back, chest, or extremity, and elevated levels of serum alkaline phosphatase are usually present in patients who have bone metastasis. The serum calcium may be elevated due to extensive bone disease.
PET and PET-CT have improved the ability to identify metastases to many organs, including bone, with greater sensitivity than CT or bone scan [32]. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
Approximately 20 percent of patients with NSCLC have bone metastases on presentation [33]. An osteolytic radiographic appearance is more frequent than an osteoblastic one, and the most common sites of involvement are the vertebral bodies (figure 16). Bone metastases are even more frequent in SCLC and can be found in 30 to 40 percent of patients (figure 17) [34].
• Adrenal — The adrenal glands are a frequent site of metastasis but such metastases are only rarely symptomatic. Concern about adrenal metastasis usually occurs when a unilateral mass is found by staging CT in a patient with a known or suspected lung cancer.
Only a fraction of adrenal masses detected on staging scans represent metastasis. This was illustrated by a series of 330 patients with operable NSCLC, in which 32 (10 percent) had an isolated adrenal mass [35]. Only 8 of these 32 (25 percent) were malignant while the remainder had benign lesions (adenomas, nodular hyperplasia, hemorrhagic cysts). Conversely, a negative imaging study does not exclude adrenal metastases. A study of patients with SCLC found that 17 percent of adrenal biopsies showed metastatic involvement despite having a normal CT scan [36].
The lack of specificity of an initial CT identifying an adrenal mass creates a special problem in patients with an otherwise resectable lung cancer. In this situation, PET may be particularly useful in distinguishing a benign from malignant adrenal mass (figure 18) [37]. Other procedures that may be useful in excluding a metastasis include an MRI consistent with a benign adenoma or a negative needle biopsy. (See "Role of imaging in the staging of non-small cell lung cancer".)
Involvement of the adrenal glands is more frequent in patients with widely disseminated disease. In autopsy series, adrenal gland metastases have been identified in about 40 percent of patients with lung cancer [30].
• Brain — Neurologic manifestations of lung cancer include metastases and paraneoplastic syndromes. (See 'Paraneoplastic phenomena' below.)
Symptoms from central nervous system metastasis are similar to those with other tumors and include headache, vomiting, visual field loss, hemiparesis, cranial nerve deficit, and seizures. (See "Overview of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of patients with brain metastases".)
In patients with NSCLC, the frequency of brain metastasis is greatest with adenocarcinoma and least with squamous cell carcinoma. The risk for brain metastasis increases with larger primary tumor size and the presence of regional node involvement (figure 19) [38]. For carefully selected patients, sequential resection may be feasible in cases that have operable NSCLC in the chest and a solitary brain metastasis. (See "Treatment of brain metastases in favorable prognosis patients".)
In patients with SCLC, metastasis to brain is present in approximately 20 to 30 percent of patients at presentation [39]. Without prophylactic irradiation, relapse in the brain occurs in about one-half of patients within two years. Randomized trials have shown that the frequency of brain metastases can be significantly reduced with prophylactic cranial radiation. (See "Prophylactic cranial irradiation for patients with small cell lung cancer".)
Paraneoplastic phenomena — Paraneoplastic effects of tumor are remote effects that are not related to the direct invasion, obstruction, or metastasis.
• Hypercalcemia — Hypercalcemia in patients with lung cancer may arise from a bony metastasis or less commonly tumor secretion of a parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), calcitriol or other cytokines, including osteoclast activating factors. (See "Hypercalcemia of malignancy".)
In one study of 1149 consecutive lung cancers, 6 percent had hypercalcemia [40]. Among those with hypercalcemia, squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and SCLC were responsible in 51, 22, and 15 percent of cases, respectively. Most patients with hypercalcemia have advanced disease (stage III or IV) and a median survival of a few months [40].
Symptoms of hypercalcemia include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, lethargy, polyuria, polydipsia, and dehydration. Confusion and coma are late manifestations, as are renal failure and nephrocalcinosis. (See "Clinical manifestations of hypercalcemia".)
Symptomatic patients who have serum calcium of 12 mg/dL (3 mmol/L) or higher require treatment that includes hydration and bisphosphonate [41]. The treatment of hypercalcemia due to malignancy is discussed in detail separately. (See "Hypercalcemia of malignancy" and "Treatment of hypercalcemia".)
• SIADH secretion — The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) is frequently caused by SCLC and results in hyponatremia. Approximately 10 percent of patients who have SCLC exhibit SIADH [42,43]. SCLC accounts for approximately 75 percent of all malignancy-related of SIADH. (See "Diagnosis of hyponatremia" and "Pathophysiology and etiology of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)".)
The severity of symptoms is related to the degree of hyponatremia and the rapidity of the fall in serum sodium. Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. Cerebral edema can occur with the onset of hyponatremia is rapid. Symptoms caused by cerebral edema may include irritability, restlessness, personality changes, confusion, coma, seizures, and respiratory arrest. (See "Manifestations of hyponatremia and hypernatremia", section on 'Hyponatremia'.)
The treatment of SIADH focuses on treating the malignancy. In the majority of patients with SCLC, the hyponatremia will resolve within weeks of starting chemotherapy. Chronic hyponatremia or that of unclear duration may be treated with normal saline infusion to euvolemia, fluid restriction and demeclocycline, or a vasopressin-receptor antagonist. Acute and severe hyponatremia may be carefully treated with hypertonic (3 percent) saline infusion for a correction of 1 to 2 mmol per liter per hour with a correction of not more than 8 to 10 mmol per liter in 24 hours [44]. (See "Treatment of hyponatremia: Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) and reset osmostat".)
• Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy — Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (HPO) is defined by the presence of clubbing (figure 20) and periosteal proliferation of the tubular bones associated with lung cancer or other lung disease. Clinically, HPO is characterized by a symmetrical, painful arthropathy that usually involves the ankles, knees, wrists, and elbows. The metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones may also be involved. (See "Malignancy and rheumatic disorders", section on 'Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy'.)
A radiograph of the long bones (ie, tibia and fibula) shows characteristic periosteal new bone formation in patients with HPO. An isotope bone scan or PET typically demonstrates diffuse uptake by the long bones (figure 21A-B).
The symptoms of HPO may resolve after tumor resection. For patients who are not operable, the usual treatment is with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents or a bisphosphonate [45].
• Dermatomyositis and polymyositis — Dermatomyositis and polymyositis are two distinct forms of inflammatory myopathy, both of which are manifested clinically by muscle weakness. These inflammatory myopathies can be the presenting symptom in patients with lung cancer or can develop later in the course of disease.
In addition to lung cancer, other frequent primary sites associated with these disorders include the ovary, cervix, pancreas, bladder, and stomach. The incidence of malignancy and the role of screening for cancer in patients with dermatomyositis or polymyositis is discussed elsewhere. (See "Malignancy in dermatomyositis and polymyositis",)
• Hematologic manifestations — A number of hematologic abnormalities are seen in patients with lung cancer. These include the following:
• Anemia — Anemia is frequent in patients with lung cancer and can contribute to fatigue and dyspnea. As an example, in one series 40 percent of untreated patients had a hemoglobin ≤12 g/dL, while the incidence of anemia was 80 percent in those on chemotherapy [46]. Anemia may be due to any of a number of causes, including treatment.
(See "Hematologic consequences of malignancy: Anemia" and "Role of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in the treatment of anemia in patients with cancer".)
• Leukocytosis — In one series, tumor-associated leukocytosis was found in 15 percent of patients with lung cancer. Nearly all had NSCLC, and the leukocytosis was thought to be due to overproduction of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor [47]. Leukocytosis in association with lung cancer is associated with a poor prognosis and has also been associated with hypercalcemia [40,47].
(See "Causes of neutrophilia", section on 'Secondary neutrophilia'.)
• Thrombocytosis — Thrombocytosis is common and maybe present in as many as 14 percent of patients with lung cancer at presentation [48]. Thrombocytosis at presentation has been identified as an independent predictor of shortened survival [49].
- Eosinophilia — Eosinophilia in tissue or blood is rare, but has been reported in patients with large cell carcinoma.
(See "Approach to the patient with eosinophilia", section on 'Hematologic and neoplastic disorders'.)
• Hypercoagulable disorders — A variety of hypercoagulable disorders have been associated with lung cancer and other malignancies. These hypercoagulable disorders include:
- Trousseau's syndrome (migratory superficial thrombophlebitis)
- Deep venous thrombosis and thromboembolism
- Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy
- Thrombotic microangiopathy
- Nonthrombotic microangiopathy.
These complications and their management are discussed separately. (See "Hypercoagulable disorders associated with malignancy".)
• Cushing's syndrome — Ectopic production of adrenal corticotropin (ACTH) can cause Cushing's syndrome. Patients typically present with muscle weakness, weight loss, hypertension, hirsutism, and osteoporosis. Hypokalemic alkalosis and hyperglycemia are usually present. (See "Clinical manifestations of Cushing's syndrome".)
Cushing's syndrome is relatively common in patients with SCLC and with carcinoid tumors of the lung, as well as extrathoracic malignancies [50]. Patients with Cushing's syndrome and SCLC appear to have a worse prognosis than patients with SCLC without Cushing's syndrome [50-52]. (See "Establishing the cause of Cushing's syndrome" and "Bronchial carcinoid tumors", section on 'Cushing's syndrome'.)
• Neurologic — Lung cancer is the most common cancer associated with paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes; typically these are associated with SCLC. Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes are thought to be immune-mediated, and autoantibodies have been identified in a number of instances. The various neurologic paraneoplastic syndromes and their pathophysiology are discussed elsewhere. (See "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting brain and cranial nerves" and "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting peripheral nerve and muscle" and "Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia".)
These diverse neurologic manifestations include, but are not limited to, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), cerebellar ataxia, sensory neuropathy, limbic encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, autonomic neuropathy, retinopathy, and opsomyoclonus [53].
The most common of these is LEMS, which may be seen in approximately 3 percent of patients with SCLC (figure 22) [54]. The neurologic symptoms of LEMS precede the diagnosis of SCLC in more than 80 percent of cases, often by months to years. (See "Clinical features and diagnosis of Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome" and "Treatment of Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome", section on 'Evaluation for malignancy'.)
As many as 70 percent of patients who have SCLC and an associated paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome have limited stage disease [55]. The finding of a paraneoplastic autoantibody in patients presenting with a neurologic syndrome should lead to an evaluation for malignancy. A CT of the chest is indicated in current or former smokers who have a suspected paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome. If the CT chest is negative, then PET may be useful in identifying the location of a neoplasm. Even subtle abnormalities of the lungs or mediastinum require biopsy in this situation (figure 23A-B) [56].
Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes generally do not improve with immunosuppressive treatment. However, symptoms may stabilize with response of the underlying neoplasm to treatment.
SUMMARY — Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide for both men and women.
• Cigarette smoking is responsible for approximately 90 percent of cases of lung cancer. Thus prevention of smoking and cessation of smoking offer the most important route to decreasing the morbidity and mortality associated with this disease. (See "Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for lung cancer".)
• Lung cancer is divided into several histologic types. The most important distinction is between non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC). (See "Pathology of lung malignancies".)
• The clinical manifestations of lung cancer can be due to intrathoracic effects of the tumor (eg, cough, hemoptysis, pleural disease), extrathoracic metastases (most commonly, liver, bone, brain), or paraneoplastic phenomena (eg, hypercalcemia, Cushing's syndrome, hypercoagulability disorders, various neurologic syndromes). (See 'Clinical manifestations' above.)
• The initial evaluation, treatment, and prognosis of lung cancer is presented separately. (See "Overview of the initial evaluation, treatment and prognosis of lung cancer".)
Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement
REFERENCES
1. Parkin, DM, Bray, F, Ferlay, J, Pisani, P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55:74.
2. Jemal, A, Siegel, R, Ward, E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin 2009; 59:225.
3. Jemal, A, Thun, MJ, Ries, LA, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2005, featuring trends in lung cancer, tobacco use, and tobacco control. J Natl Cancer Inst 2008; 100:1672.
4. Alberg, AJ, Samet, JM. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Chest 2003; 123:21S.
5. Doll, R, Peto, R, Boreham, J, et al. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ 2004; 328:1519.
6. Kaufman, EL, Jacobson, JS, Hershman, DL, et al. Effect of breast cancer radiotherapy and cigarette smoking on risk of second primary lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26:392.
7. Hodgson, DC, Koh, ES, Tran, TH, et al. Individualized estimates of second cancer risks after contemporary radiation therapy for Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer 2007; 110:2576.
8. Lorigan, P, Radford, J, Howell, A, Thatcher, N. Lung cancer after treatment for Hodgkin's lymphoma: a systematic review. Lancet Oncol 2005; 6:773.
9. Hubbard, R, Venn, A, Lewis, S, Britton, J. Lung cancer and cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. A population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:5.
10. Travis, WD, Brambilla, E, Müller-Hermelink, HK, et al. Pathology and Genetics: Tumours of the Lung, Pleura, Thymus and Heart. Lyon, IARC, 2004.
11. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2004/results_merged/sect_15_lung_bronchus.pdf.
12. Hyde, L, Hyde, CI. Clinical manifestations of lung cancer. Chest 1974; 65:299.
13. Chute, CG, Greenberg, ER, Baron, J, et al. Presenting conditions of 1539 population-based lung cancer patients by cell type and stage in New Hampshire and Vermont. Cancer 1985; 56:2107.
14. Hirshberg, B, Biran, I, Glazer, M, Kramer, MR. Hemoptysis: Etiology, evaluation, and outcome in a tertiary referral hospital. Chest 1997; 112:440.
15. Colice, GL. Detecting lung cancer as a cause of hemoptysis in patients with a normal chest radiograph: bronchoscopy vs. CT. Chest 1997; 111:877.
16. Kuo, CW, Chen, YM, Chao, JY, et al. Non-small cell lung cancer in very young and very old patients. Chest 2000; 117:354.
17. Piehler, JM, Pairolero, PC, Gracey, DR, Bernatz, PE. Unexplained diaphragmatic paralysis: a harbinger of malignant disease? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982; 84:861.
18. Ramadan, HH, Wax, MK, Avery, S. Outcome and changing cause of unilateral vocal cord paralysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998; 118:199.
19. Chen, HC, Jen, YM, Wang, CH, et al. Etiology of vocal cord paralysis. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2007; 69:167.
20. Chernow, B, Sahn, SA. Carcinomatous involvement of the pleura: an analysis of 96 patients. Am J Med 1977; 63:695.
21. Decker, DA, Dines, DE, Payne, WS, et al. The significance of a cytologically negative pleural effusion in bronchogenic carcinoma. Chest 1978; 74:640.
22. Roberts, JR, Blum, MG, Arildsen, R et al. Prospective comparison of radiologic, thoracoscopic, and pathologic staging in patients with early non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 1999; 68:1154.
23. Prakash, UB, Reiman, HM. Comparison of needle biopsy with cytologic analysis for the evaluation of pleural effusion: analysis of 414 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1985; 60:158.
24. Swiderek, J, Morcos, S, Donthireddy, V, et al. Prospective study to determine the volume of pleural fluid required to diagnose malignancy. Chest 2010; 137:68.
25. Sahn, SA. Malignancy metastatic to the pleura. Clin Chest Med 1998; 19:351.
26. Eren, S, Karaman, A, Okur, A. The superior vena cava syndrome caused by malignant disease. Imaging with multi-detector row CT. Eur J Radiol 2006; 59:93.
27. Hillers, TK, Sauve, MD, Guyatt, GH. Analysis of published studies on the detection of extrathoracic metastases in patients presumed to have operable non-small cell lung cancer. Thorax 1994; 49:14.
28. van Tinteren, H, Hoekstra, OS, Smit, EF, et al. Effectiveness of positron emission tomography in the preoperativeassessment of patients with suspected non-small-cell lung cancer: the PLUS multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 359:1388.
29. De Wever, W, Vankan, Y, Stroobants, S, Verschakelen, J. Detection of extrapulmonary lesions with integrated PET/CT in the staging of lung cancer. Eur Respir J 2007; 29:995.
30. Stenbygaard, LE, Sorensen, JB, Olsen, JE. Metastatic pattern at autopsy in non-resectable adenocarcinoma of the lung--a study from a cohort of 259 consecutive patients treated with chemotherapy. Acta Oncol 1997; 36:301.
31. Jereczek, B, Jassem, J, Karnicka-Mlodkowska, H, et al. Autopsy findings in small cell lung cancer. Neoplasma 1996; 43:133.
32. Cheran, SK, Herndon JE, 2nd, Patz, EF Jr. Comparison of whole-body FDG-PET to bone scan for detection of bone metastases in patients with a new diagnosis of lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2004; 44:317.
33. Toloza, EM, Harpole, L, McCrory, DC. Noninvasive staging of non-small cell lung cancer: a review of the current evidence. Chest 2003; 123:137S.
34. Schumacher, T, Brink, I, Mix, M, et al. FDG-PET imaging for the staging and follow-up of small cell lung cancer. Eur J Nucl Med 2001; 28:483.
35. Oliver, TW Jr, Bernardino, ME, Miller, JI, et al. Isolated adrenal masses in nonsmall-cell bronchogenic carcinoma. Radiology 1984; 153:217.
36. Pagani JJ. Normal adrenal glands in small cell lung carcinoma: CT-guided biopsy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1983; 140:949.
37. Erasmus, JJ, Patz, EF Jr, McAdams, HP, et al. Evaluation of adrenal masses in patients with bronchogenic carcinoma using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168:1357.
38. Mujoomdar, A, Austin, JH, Malhotra, R, et al. Clinical predictors of metastatic disease to the brain from non-small cell lung carcinoma: primary tumor size, cell type, and lymph node metastases. Radiology 2007; 242:882.
39. Doyle, TJ. Brain metastasis in the natural history of small-cell lung cancer: 1972-1979. Cancer 1982; 50:752.
40. Hiraki, A, Ueoka, H, Takata, I, et al. Hypercalcemia-leukocytosis syndrome associated with lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2004; 43:301.
41. Thomas, L, Kwok, Y, Edelman, MJ. Management of paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2004; 5:51.
42. List, AF, Hainsworth, JD, Davis, BW, et al. The syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) in small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 1986; 4:1191.
43. Hansen, O, Sorensen, P, Hansen, KH. The occurrence of hyponatremia in SCLC and the influence on prognosis: a retrospective study of 453 patients treated in a single institution in a 10-year period. Lung Cancer 2010; 68:111.
44. Ellison, DH, Berl, T. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:2064.
45. Amital, H, Applbaum, YH, Vasiliev, L, Rubinow, A. Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy: control of pain and symptoms with pamidronate. Clin Rheumatol 2004; 23:330.
46. Kosmidis, P, Krzakowski, M. Anemia profiles in patients with lung cancer: what have we learned from the European Cancer Anaemia Survey (ECAS)?. Lung Cancer 2005; 50:401.
47. Kasuga, I, Makino, S, Kiyokawa, H, et al. Tumor-related leukocytosis is linked with poor prognosis in patients with lung carcinoma. Cancer 2001; 92:2399.
48. Hamilton, W, Peters, TJ, Round, A, Sharp, D. What are the clinical features of lung cancer before the diagnosis is made? A population based case-control study. Thorax 2005; 60:1059.
49. Aoe, K, Hiraki, A, Ueoka, H, et al. Thrombocytosis as a useful prognostic indicator in patients with lung cancer. Respiration 2004; 71:170.
50. Ilias, I, Torpy, DJ, Pacak, K, et al. Cushing's syndrome due to ectopic corticotropin secretion: twenty years' experience at the National Institutes of Health. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90:4955.
51. Delisle, L, Boyer, MJ, Warr, D, et al. Ectopic corticotropin syndrome and small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Clinical features, outcome, and complications. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153:746.
52. Shepherd, FA, Laskey, J, Evans, WK, et al. Cushing's syndrome associated with ectopic corticotropin production and small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 1992; 10:21.
53. Honnorat, J, Antoine, JC. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2007; 2:22.
54. Elrington, GM, Murray, NM, Spiro, SG, Newsom-Davis, J. Neurological paraneoplastic syndromes in patients with small cell lung cancer. A prospective survey of 150 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54:764.
55. Sillevis Smitt, SP, Grefkens, J, de Leeuw, B, van den Bent, M, et al. Survival and outcome in 73 anti-Hu positive patients with paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy. J Neurol 2002; 249:745.
56. Younes-Mhenni, S, Janier, MF, Cinotti, L, et al. FDG-PET improves tumour detection in patients with paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Brain 2004; 127:2331.
Suscribirse a:
Entradas (Atom)