Evaluación de la Escala de Catastrofismo del Dolor para la derivación quirúrgica a la psicología del dolor en pacientes sometidos a cirugía de columna

Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018 Jun 5. doi: 10.1097/AAP.0000000000000808. [Epub ahead of print]

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Over the past 2 decades, the use of intravenous ketamine infusions as a treatment for chronic pain has increased dramatically, with wide variation in patient selection, dosing, and monitoring. This has led to a chorus of calls from various sources for the development of consensus guidelines. METHODS: In November 2016, the charge for developing consensus guidelines was approved by the boards of directors of the AmericanSociety of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine and, shortly thereafter, the American Academy of Pain Medicine. In late 2017, the completed document was sent to the American Society of Anesthesiologists' Committees on Pain Medicine and Standards and Practice Parameters, after which additional modifications were made. Panel members were selected by the committee chair and both boards of directors based on their expertise in evaluating clinical trials, past research experience, and clinical experience in developing protocols and treating patients with ketamine. Questions were developed and refined by the committee, and the groups responsible for addressing each question consisted of modules composed of 3 to 5 panel members in addition to the committee chair. Once a preliminary consensus was achieved, sections were sent to the entire panel, and further revisions were made. In addition to consensus guidelines, a comprehensive narrative review was performed, which formed part of the basis for guidelines. RESULTS: Guidelines were prepared for the following areas: indications; contraindications; whether there was evidence for a dose-response relationship, or a minimum or therapeutic dose range; whether oral ketamine or another N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist was a reasonable treatment option as a follow-up to infusions; preinfusion testing requirements; settings and personnel necessary to administer and monitor treatment; the use of preemptive and rescue medications to address adverse effects; and what constitutes a positive treatment response. The group was able to reach consensus on all questions. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence supports the use of ketamine for chronic pain, but the level of evidence varies by condition and dose range. Most studies evaluating the efficacy of ketamine were small and uncontrolled and were either unblinded or ineffectively blinded. Adverse effects were few and the rate of serious adverse effects was similar to placebo in most studies, with higher dosages and more frequent infusionsassociated with greater risks. Larger studies, evaluating a wider variety of conditions, are needed to better quantify efficacy, improve patient selection, refine the therapeutic dose range, determine the effectiveness of nonintravenous ketamine alternatives, and develop a greater understanding of the long-term risks of repeated treatments.

Ketamina perioperatoria para dolor por toracotomía

Perioperative Ketamine Administration for Thoracotomy Pain.

Moyse DW1, Kaye AD, Diaz JH2, Qadri MY1, Lindsay D1, Pyati S3.

Pain Physician. 2017 Mar;20(3):173-184.

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Of all the postsurgical pain conditions, thoracotomy pain poses a particular therapeutic challenge in terms of its prevalence, severity, and ensuing postoperative morbidity. Multiple pain generators contribute to the severity of post-thoracotomy pain, and therefore a multimodal analgesic therapy is considered to be a necessary strategy. Along with opioids, thoracic epidural analgesia, and paravertebral blocks, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists such as ketamine have been used as adjuvants to improve analgesia. OBJECTIVE: We reviewed the evidence for the efficacy of intravenous and epidural administration of ketamine in acute post-thoracotomy pain management, and its effectiveness in reducing chronic post-thoracotomy pain. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic literature review and an analytic study of a data subset were performed. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane reviews using the key terms "ketamine," "neuropathic pain," "postoperative," and "post-thoracotomy pain syndrome." The search was limited to human trials and included all studies published before January 2015. Data from animal studies, abstracts, and letters were excluded. All studies not available in the English language were excluded. The manuscript bibliographies were reviewed for additional related articles. We included randomized controlled trials and retrospective studies, while excluding individual case reports. RESULTS: This systematic literature search yielded 15 randomized control trials evaluating the efficacy of ketamine in the treatment of acute post-thoracotomy pain; fewer studies assessed its effect on attenuating chronic post-thoracotomy pain. The majority of reviewed studies demonstrated that ketamine has efficacy in reduction of acute pain, but the evidence is limited on the long-term benefits of ketamine to prevent post-thoracotomy pain syndrome, regardless of the route of administration. A nested analytical study found there is a statistically significant reduction in acute post-thoracotomy pain with IV or epidural ketamine. However currently, the evidence for a role of ketamine as a preventative agent for chronic post-thoracotomy pain is insufficient due to the heterogeneity of the studies reviewed with regard to the route of administration, dosage, and outcome measures. LIMITATIONS: The evidence for a role of ketamine as a preventative agent for chronic post-thoracotomy pain is insufficient due to the heterogeneity of the studies reviewed. CONCLUSION: The majority of randomized controlled trials reviewed show no role for ketamine in attenuating or preventing post-thoracotomy pain syndrome at variable follow-up lengths. Therefore, additional research is warranted with consideration of risk factors and long-term follow-up for chronic post-thoracotomy pain though the evidence for benefit appears clear for acute post-thoracotomy pain.Key words: Ketamine, postoperative, thoracotomy pain, post thoracotomy pain syndrome, neuropathic pain.

¿La adición de ketamina a la analgesia controlada por el paciente con morfina mejora de manera segura el dolor post-toracotomía?

Does adding ketamine to morphine patient-controlled analgesia safely improve post-thoracotomy pain?

Mathews TJ1, Churchhouse AM, Housden T, Dunning J.

Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2012 Feb;14(2):194-9. doi: 10.1093/icvts/ivr081. Epub 2011 Nov 28.

Abstract

A best evidence topic in thoracic surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was 'is the addition of ketamine to morphine patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) following thoracic surgery superior to morphine alone'. Altogether 201 papers were found using the reported search, of which nine represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date and country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. This consisted of one systematic review of PCA morphine with ketamine (PCA-MK) trials, one meta-analysis of PCA-MK trials, four randomized controlled trials of PCA-MK, one meta-analysis of trials using a variety of peri-operative ketamine regimes and two cohort studies of PCA-MK. Main outcomes measured included pain score rated on visual analogue scale, morphine consumption and incidence of psychotomimetic side effects/hallucination. Two papers reported the measurements of respiratory function. This evidence shows that adding ketamine to morphine PCA is safe, with a reported incidence of hallucination requiring intervention of 2.9%, and a meta-analysis finding an incidence of all central nervous system side effects of 18% compared with 15% with morphine alone, P = 0.31, RR 1.27 with 95% CI (0.8-2.01). All randomized controlled trials of its use following thoracic surgery found no hallucination or psychological side effect. All five studies in thoracic surgery (n = 243) found reduced morphine requirements with PCA-MK. Pain scores were significantly lower in PCA-MK patients in thoracic surgery papers, with one paper additionally reporting increased patient satisfaction. However, no significant improvement was found in a meta-analysis of five papers studying PCA-MK in a variety of surgical settings. Both papers reporting respiratory outcomes found improved oxygen saturations and PaCO(2) levels in PCA-MK patients following thoracic surgery. We conclude that adding low-dose ketamine to morphine PCA is safe and post-thoracotomy may provide better pain control than PCA with morphine alone (PCA-MO), with reduced morphine consumption and possible improvement in respiratory function. These studies thus support the routine use of PCA-MK instead of PCA-MO to improve post-thoracotomy pain control.

Papel de la ketamina en el tratamiento del dolor crónico por cáncer

The role of ketamine in the treatment of chronic cancer pain.

Zgaia AO1, Irimie A1, Sandesc D2, Vlad C1, Lisencu C1, Rogobete A2, Achimas-Cadariu P1.

Clujul Med. 2015;88(4):457-61. doi: 10.15386/cjmed-500. Epub 2015 Nov 15.

Abstract

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Ketamine is a drug used for the induction and maintenance of general anesthesia, for the treatment of postoperative and posttraumatic acute pain, and more recently, for the reduction of postoperative opioid requirements. The main mechanism of action of ketamine is the antagonization of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors that are associated with central sensitization. In the pathogenesis of chronic pain and particularly in neuropathic pain, an important role is played by the activation of NMDA receptors. Although ketamine is indicated and used for the treatment of chronic cancer pain as an adjuvant to opioids, there are few clinical studies that clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of ketamine in this type of pain. The aim of this study is to analyze evidence-based clinical data on the effectiveness and safety of ketamine administration in the treatment of chronic neoplastic pain, and to summarize the evidence-based recommendations for the use of ketamine in the treatment of chronic cancer pain. METHOD: We reviewed the literature from the electronic databases of MEDLINE, COCHRANE, PUBMED, MEDSCAPE (1998-2014), as well as chapters of specialized books (palliative care, pain management, anesthesia). RESULTS: A number of studies support the effectiveness of ketamine in the treatment of chronic cancer pain, one study does not evidence clear clinical benefits for the use of ketamine, and some studies included too few patients to be conclusive. CONCLUSIONS: Ketamine represents an option for neoplasic pain that no longer responds to conventional opioid treatment, but this drug should be used with caution, and the development of potential side effects should be carefully monitored.

KEYWORDS: cancer pain; chronic cancer pain treatment; ketamine; neuropathic pain; pain treatment

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Opioides en dolor crónico / Opioids in chronic pain

Febrero 6, 2018. No. 2986

Prescripción responsable, segura y efectiva de opiáceos para el dolor crónico no relacionado con el cáncer: guías de la American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP).

Responsible, Safe, and Effective Prescription of Opioids for Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Guidelines.

Manchikanti L, Kaye AM, Knezevic NN1, McAnally H2, Slavin K3, Trescot AM4, Blank S5, Pampati V, Abdi S6, Grider JS, Kaye AD, Manchikanti KN7, Cordner H, Gharibo CG, Harned ME, Albers SL, Atluri S, Aydin SM8, Bakshi S, Barkin RL, Benyamin RM, Boswell MV9, Buenaventura RM, Calodney AK, Cedeno DL10, Datta S, Deer TR, Fellows B, Galan V11, Grami V, Hansen H, Helm Ii S, Justiz R, Koyyalagunta D, Malla Y, Navani A12, Nouri KH, Pasupuleti R, Sehgal N, Silverman SM, Simopoulos TT13, Singh V14, Solanki DR15, Staats PS16, Vallejo R, Wargo BW, Watanabe A17, Hirsch JA1

Pain Physician. 2017 Feb;20(2S):S3-S92.

CONCLUSIONS: These guidelines were developed based on comprehensive review of the literature, consensus among the panelists, in consonance with patient preferences, shared decision-making, and practice patterns with limited evidence, based on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to improve pain and function in chronic non-cancer pain on a long-term basis. Consequently, chronic opioid therapy should be provided only to patients with proven medical necessity and stability with improvement in pain and function, independently or in conjunction with other modalities of treatments in low doses with appropriate adherence monitoring and understanding of adverse events.Key words: Chronic pain, persistent pain, non-cancer pain, controlled substances, substance abuse, prescription drug abuse, dependency, opioids, prescription monitoring, drug testing, adherence monitoring, diversionDisclaimer: The guidelines are based on the best available evidence and do not constitute inflexible treatment recommendations. Due to the changing body of evidence, this document is not intended to be a "standard of care."

Guías de los CDC para la prescripción de opiáceos para el dolor crónico - Estados Unidos, 2016.

CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain--United States, 2016.

Dowell D1, Haegerich TM1, Chou R1.

JAMA. 2016 Apr 19;315(15):1624-45. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.1464.

Abstract

IMPORTANCE:Primary care clinicians find managing chronic pain challenging. Evidence of long-term efficacy of opioids for chronic pain is limited. Opioid use is associated with serious risks, including opioid use disorder and overdose. OBJECTIVE: To provide recommendations about opioid prescribing for primary care clinicians treating adult patients with chronic pain outside of active cancer treatment, palliative care, and end-of-life care. PROCESS: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) updated a 2014 systematic review on effectiveness and risks of opioidsand conducted a supplemental review on benefits and harms, values and preferences, and costs. CDC used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) framework to assess evidence type and determine the recommendation category. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Evidence consisted of observational studies or randomized clinical trials with notable limitations, characterized as low quality using GRADE methodology. Meta-analysis was not attempted due to the limited number of studies, variability in study designs and clinical heterogeneity, and methodological shortcomings of studies. No study evaluated long-term (≥1 year) benefit of opioids for chronic pain. Opioids were associated with increased risks, including opioid use disorder, overdose, and death, with dose-dependent effects. RECOMMENDATIONS: There are 12 recommendations. Of primary importance, nonopioid therapy is preferred for treatment of chronic pain. Opioids should be used only when benefits for pain and function are expected to outweigh risks. Before starting opioids, clinicians should establish treatment goals with patients and consider how opioids will be discontinued if benefits do not outweigh risks. When opioids are used, clinicians should prescribe the lowest effective dosage, carefully reassess benefits and risks when considering increasing dosage to 50 morphine milligram equivalents or more per day, and avoid concurrent opioids and benzodiazepines whenever possible. Clinicians should evaluate benefits and harms of continued opioid therapy with patients every 3 months or more frequently and review prescription drug monitoring program data, when available, for high-risk combinations or dosages. For patients with opioid use disorder, clinicians should offer or arrange evidence-based treatment, such as medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine or methadone. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The guideline is intended to improve communication about benefits and risks of opioids for chronic pain, improve safety and effectiveness of pain treatment, and reduce risks associated with long-term opioid therapy.