jueves, 21 de junio de 2012

Toasted


Toasted

anxiety
Anxiety: We worry. A gallery of contributors count the ways.

When I leave our apartment, I can’t remember if I’ve turned off the toaster oven. The appliance doesn’t go off automatically. If it is on, you have to turn the knob to the left or unplug the whole gadget. I have a picture in my mind of the heating elements glowing red and the food crumbs catching fire inside. I know this can happen because I’ve seen it. I’ll be toasting something, and I’ll see a flickering yellow light through the oven’s small window. If I do nothing, the fire will continue unabated. If I open the oven door, the inflow of air will feed the flames.
The fire inside the appliance could spread to the plasterboard wall. The cardboard layer is flammable; a high temperature will set it off. A painting of mine hangs near the toaster. It’s a harmless still life on canvas stretched over wood. Are there any better materials than canvas, wood and Sheetrock to fuel a fire? Maybe the painting deserves to be burned. But even if it does, I don’t want the entire apartment turned to ash.
Michael Olivo
I smell smoke, either from my burning apartment or from a vehicle’s exhaust pipe. I can’t tell. In any case, the sensation puts me on alert. I know what can happen. The smoke will turn into flame.

What should I do? Return and check the toaster-oven knobs, or continue on my way? If I keep going, maybe something else will grab my attention and I’ll forget about the toaster. Maybe I’ll arrive at my workplace and discover that an e-mail I was supposed to send hasn’t been sent. When I realize what has happened, it will be too late. Someone else was supposed to take the e-mail and reformat it. That person needed me to send the raw material. I remember making some revisions. I remember seeing the file name on my computer screen. I remember attaching a document, something about a proposal, a proposed law, new coverage. But I don’t remember highlighting the recipient’s name and clicking the send button.
Maybe the work problem will take my mind off of my burning apartment. Maybe I’ll realize what’s done is done — there’s nothing else I can do. Either I’ve set fire to my building or I haven’t. Anyway, it doesn’t matter, because if I don’t start the fire, someone else will. Many of my neighbors have appliances with electric heating elements, and as I see it, they don’t care as much about safety as I do.
One time, when I was living alone, I was awakened by the smell of smoke. The source was somewhere outside my apartment. I opened my entrance door and saw that the hallway was filled with smoke. I went back in and looked out my window. On the street, a firefighter shouted through a bullhorn: “Don’t leave your apartments! Stay inside and keep your doors shut!”
I opened my door again and saw a woman run out of the apartment next to mine. She had nothing but the clothes she was wearing and her cat, in a carrier. She ran down the stairs, through the spray of the sprinklers, and onto the street. I looked out my window and saw her on the sidewalk. She and her cat were soaked, but they were safe. I followed instructions and stayed inside.
From where I was, I could hear firefighters walking on the stairs. As they arrived at each apartment door, they pounded. If no one answered, they struck the doors with their axes. I could hear the sound of metal against metal. When they got to my place, I opened the door before they struck. “Good,” one of them said. “We won’t have to pop your lock.”
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The next day, I learned that my first-floor neighbor had turned on an electric heater and let some bath towels fall over it. Then she went to sleep, and the towels started to smolder. Her place became a bath-towel furnace, and the building turned into a smoky sauna. No one was harmed, but I coughed up smoke particles for the next few days. I imagined that my neighbors and their pets were similarly afflicted.
Bottom line: If my neighbors don’t set a fire, our child will. Our daughter doesn’t know how to work the “Toast” and “Heat” buttons on the toaster oven. She thinks that once the timer stops ticking, the oven is off. But if the control knob is still turned to high heat, the oven is on. I picture the toaster switched off while the oven is set to 450 degrees. That’s hot enough to ignite anything burnable.
A solution, of course, would be to clean the toaster oven and move it away from the wall. That way, there would be nothing to burn. But these steps are beyond me, mainly because I never think of them while I’m in the apartment. I think of them only as I walk away from the building that will shortly become a cinder.
Now, as I walk away from home, I could call someone who is still inside to see if the appliance is off. I could use my cellphone — my question is urgent. But I don’t think anyone is home. Even if anyone were there, all they would tell me is that the place is engulfed in flames.
I make the call. Someone answers, but I don’t know who it is. “This is Daddy,” I say.
“Daddy?”
“No, not Daddy,” I say.
“This is not your daughter,” my spouse says.
“Can you do me a favor?” I ask. “Can you check to see if the toaster oven is off?”
“Hold on.”
I hold, and as I hold, I imagine my spouse batting at the flames that are licking the walls.
(Anxiety welcomes submissions at anxiety@nytimes.com.)

Thaddeus Rutkowski
Thaddeus Rutkowski is the author of the novels “Haywire,” “Tetched” and “Roughhouse.” He works as a copy editor, adjunct lecturer and fiction-writing instructor. He lives in Manhattan with his wife and daughter.

Solsticio


 
solsticio
Se llama así al instante en que el sol alcanza el Trópico de Cáncer, situado en el hemisferio norte, o el de Capricornio, en el sur, lo que ocurre cada año alrededor del 21 de junio y del 21 de diciembre, respectivamente. El solsticio de verano (hemisferio norte, invierno en el sur) de 2012 ocurre hoy, miércoles 20 de junio a las 20:09, hora de Montevideo, Buenos Aires y Brasilia, cuando en México D.F. serán las 18:00 h y en Madrid y Barcelona, la 1:00 del jueves 21.
Los equinoccios, en cambio, se producen alrededor del 22 de septiembre y del 21 de marzo, cuando el sol se ubica sobre la línea del Ecuador, equidistante de ambos hemisferios.
Los latinos llamaba solstitium, solstitii a esta posición del astro, palabra formada por sol y stare 'quedar estacionado en lugar', porque al llegar a los trópicos el sol se mueve más lentamente con relación a su posición del día anterior.

Notiweb


Comunidad de Madrid. La Suma de Todos   Boletín informativo 'diariodeSol'
madri+d Facebookmadri+d Twittermadri+d Twittermadri+d rssmadri+d youtube
NOTIWEB MADRI+D · BOLETÍN DE NOTICIAS DE I+D 21/06/2012
NÚMERO DE SUSCRIPTORES: 60338
"Es más fácil negar las cosas que enterarse de ellas" (LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE) 1809-1837
Más de 30 años de datos sobre la humedad del suelo para el estudio del clima

El agua almacenada en el suelo juega un papel muy importante en el sistema climático. La ESA presenta el primer catálogo global de datos sobre la humedad del suelo correspondientes al periodo 1978-2010 un precursor de la información que continúa recopilando la misión SMOS de la ESA.
Crean una cámara de 50 gigapíxeles, cinco veces más precisa que la visión humana

Una cámara de 50 gigapíxeles. O lo que es lo mismo, de 50.000 megapíxeles. Un dispositivo capaz de conseguir imágenes con un detalle sin precedentes.
LinktoGrowUp, una nueva aceleradora para startups en fase de crecimiento

La fiebre de las aceleradoras ya tiene un nuevo agente: linktoGrowUp, un programa de aceleración hermano del ya famoso LinktoStart.
La posibilidad de una tundra ártica verde en el futuro

Los suelos en regiones situadas en latitudes elevadas almacenan más carbono que el que contiene la atmósfera. Además, en el Ártico también se sufre el aumento de la temperatura que se produce en el resto del planeta.
Carver Mead: Los investigadores que no tienen contacto con el mundo comercial se arriesgan a quedar obsoletos y a perder muchas oportunidades

El ingeniero electrónico Carver Mead, Premio Fundación BBVA Fronteras del Conocimiento en Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación (TIC), nunca ha percibido en su carrera "una frontera muy marcada entre la investigación básica y las aplicaciones".
Cuanto más creativos, más ricos

El informe que presenta en Bruselas la Universitat de València sostiene que el tamaño de los sectores culturales y creativos es “la variable más determinante para explicar las diferencias de renta per cápita de las regiones Europeas”.
La hormona que despierta el cerebro

Un grupo de investigadores españoles ha descubierto una nueva función del neurotransmisor dopamina en el control de la regulación del sueño. Sus resultados podrían servir para avanzar en el conocimiento de los trastornos del sueño y desarrollar nuevos medicamentos.
Un cráter del polo sur de la Luna podría albergar depósitos de hielo

El cráter Shackleton, cercano al polo sur de la Luna, podría albergar hielo, según un equipo de investigadores estadounidenses que aún no ha podido demostrar su existencia, informó la revista científica "Nature".
Pastores africanos ya ordeñaban el ganado hace 7.000 años

Los seres humanos domesticaban a sus animales y ya ordeñaban al ganado hace cerca de 7.000 años en el África subsahariana, según una investigación publicada en la revista «Nature» por un equipo internacional de científicos liderado por la Universidad de Bristol (Reino Unido).
Charles Lawrie: Detectaremos los cánceres con análisis de sangre

Entrevista a Charles Lawrie, doctor en Biología procedente de la Universidad de Oxford e investigador de Ikerbasque, trabaja en Biodonostia, el único centro dedicado exclusivamente a las investigaciones biomédicas en el País Vasco.
Blog del día: Los avances de la química y su impacto en la sociedad. Resveratrol y (la falsa) longevidad

El resveratrol es un componente del vino tinto (y de otros alimentos) que se ha calificado como la molécula de la eterna juventud; comercializándose con el llamativo eslogan 'elixir de la eterna juventud' (y frases similares).
mi+d tvcanalesemprendedores7PM
VIII Premios madri+d

MEJOR PROYECTO EUROPEO DE I+D EN COOPERACIÓN

Mejor Proyecto Europeo de I+D en Cooperación ex aequo

Accésits
"La energía solar está llamada a ser una de las más importantes fuentes de electricidad del siglo XXI"
Antonio Luque. Catedrático de UPM y fundador del Instituto de Energía Solar. Coordinador del proyecto NGCPV
"La participación en el 7PM ha permitido construir un equipo multidisciplinar internacional basado en la confianza mutua y la colaboración"
Antonio Tenorio. Investigador del Centro Nacional de Microbiología del Instituto de Salud Carlos III. Coordinador del Proyecto EuroWestNile

Ceremonia de entrega

Excelencia y calidad


Más allá de la competencia: definiendo y promoviendo la excelencia en anestesiología
Beyond competence: defining and promoting excellence in anaesthesia.
Smith AF, Greaves JD.
Department of Anaesthesia, Royal Lancaster Infirmary, Lancaster, UK.andrew.f.smith@mbht.nhs.uk
Anaesthesia. 2010 Feb;65(2):184-91. Epub 2009 Dec 11.
Abstract
Recent trends in medical training have tended to focus on competence, in the sense of adequate performance, rather than excellence. This article reviews published literature and relevant concepts relating to excellence and professionalism from within anaesthesia, from medicine more generally and from outside the profession. A number of conceptual frameworks are presented that could be adapted for the promotion of excellence, and some of the necessary prerequisites for this promotion discussed.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2009.06162.x/pdf 
 
Mejorando la calidad en la educación médica: estado actual y futuras direcciones
Quality improvement in medical education: current state and future directions
Brian M Wong, Wendy Levinson, Kaveh G Shojania.
Medical Education 2012: 46: 107-119
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04154.x
CONTEXT. During the last decade, there has been a drive to improve the quality of patient care and prevent the occurrence of avoidable errors. This review describes current efforts to teach or engage trainees in patient safety and quality improvement (QI), summarises progress to date, as well as successes and challenges, and lists our recommendations for the next steps that will shape the future of patient safety and QI in medical education.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04154.x/pdf 
Atentamente
Anestesiología y Medicina del Dolor

Bibliofilia


La fotógrafa y pintora Ouka Leele expone en el Casyc 70 de sus ...
elEconomista.es
Libros de bibliofilia; mosaicos de flores; retratos de ella desnuda; y un vídeo en el que se muestra cómo realizó el mural de 300 metros cuadrados 'Mi ...
El Beato de Ginebra recibe el Premio Nacional de Facsímil mejor ...
Correo de Burgos
... en la Modalidad de Libros Facsímiles, a la reproducción del Beato de Ginebra realizado por la editorial burgalesa Siloé Arte y Bibliofilia.
La fotógrafa y pintora Ouka Leele expone en el Casyc 70 de sus ...
20minutos.es
... entre ellas retratos, fotografías, poemas, polaroids gigantes o libros de bibliofilia. Ouka Leele ha presentado la exposición este viernes en una rueda ...
Más de dos mil grabados de Posada reúne la colección de Mercurio López
La Crónica de Hoy
... pues el tiempo lo ha puesto al frente de la librería Bibliofilia, ubicada en la mítica calle Donceles del Centro Histórico, desde donde sostiene una ...
Cuando un libro cuesta 10.000 euros
Cinco Días
"Son clientes interesados en la bibliofilia y coleccionistas de arte. Pero también se deben incluir a aquellos más acotados por tema, como los fans de The ...

 
¿Bibliofilia? ¿Bibliomanía? | Leamos Más
La Bibliofilia es el amor por los libros; y el bibliófilo es el amante o aficionado a las ediciones originales de ciertos libros, a los empastes especiales, al aroma ...
www.leamosmas.com/2012/06/que-hace-bibliofilo/
BIBLIOTYPES: BIBLIOFILIA Y PAPYRUS: DOS REVISTAS DE ...
La Revista BIBLIOFILIA la Publicó Ramón Miquel y Planas en Barcelona. El primer volumen entre los años 1911 y 1914 y el segundo volumen entre los años ...
bibliotypes.blogspot.com/.../bibliofilia-y-papyrus-dos-revistas-...

Banda ancha e inclusión social: ¿ahora sí?

http://blog.pucp.edu.pe/item/161409/banda-ancha-e-inclusion-social-ahora-si

Banda ancha e inclusión social: ¿ahora sí?

Por Aurora de la Vega
20120621-applications-internet.png


La Comisión de Banda Ancha para el Desarrollo Digital, establecida en mayo de 2010 por la Unión Internacional de la Telecomunicaciones (ITU) y laUNESCO, ha dirigido recientemente una carta abierta a los líderes mundiales, políticos y ciudadanos que asistieron recientemente a la reunión de líderes del G20 en México, en la que pide su apoyo al desarrollo de la infraestructura de banda ancha y sus aplicaciones. La carta señala que, como el agua, las carreteras, el ferrocarril y la electricidad, la banda ancha es de fundamental importancia para el desarrollo social y económico de todas las naciones. Sin embargo, advierte que las inversiones no deben centrarse sólo en la infraestructura técnica sino también en la disponibilidad de contenidos relevantes, en aplicaciones y servicios en múltiples lenguas, en apoyo a los medios de comunicación, al desarrollo de la alfabetización informacional, para eliminar las desigualdades y lograr a través de la banda ancha la inclusión para todos. La carta también hace referencia a la necesidad de que el desarrollo socioeconómico sostenible incluya los cuatro pilares de las sociedades del conocimiento: libertad de expresión, educación de calidad para todos, acceso a la información y el conocimiento, y respeto a la diversidad lingüística y cultural.

Coincidentemente en el Perú, la semana pasada, el Congreso aprobó por amplia mayoría el proyecto de Ley de Promoción por el Estado de la Banda Ancha y la Construcción de la Red Dorsal Nacional de Fibra Óptica. Se dice que la norma permitirá una mayor velocidad en la transmisión de datos y beneficiará a un gran número de poblaciones que no tienen aún acceso a Internet en nuestro país. Será también de suma utilidad en escuelas, establecimientos de salud, comisarías, municipalidades, y otras instituciones del estado, especialmente aquellas que se encuentran alejadas de las grandes ciudades.

La falta de conexión a Internet en la mayoría de nuestras bibliotecas públicas, escolares y aún universitarias, en el marco de una prolongada situación de postración, nos hace tomar la noticia con cierto pesimismo y preguntarnos, a la vez, cuánto del beneficio anunciado por esta ley y cuánto del pedido de ITU y UNESCO se hará realidad y podrá llegar a las bibliotecas en un corto o mediano plazo. Es cierto que el problema que las aqueja no se soluciona únicamente con conectividad y rapidez en la transmisión, pero también es cierto que este avance puede contribuir a romper el aislamiento y facilitar intercambios provechosos. Aguardemos atentos y con cautelosa esperanza que la norma recién aprobada entre en vigencia, para así observar si Internet va incorporándose a todas las bibliotecas de nuestro país, como es nuestro deseo, para facilitar el cumplimiento de objetivos tan importantes como dar acceso a la información y al conocimiento y plasmar el derecho a la educación y la cultura de todo ciudadano.

Infección por Gram negativos que hay de nuevo en México


  Estimado Pediatra  te invito al Seminario de Pediatría, Cirugía Pediátrica y Lactancia Materna. Programa 2012, el día 27 de junio    las 21hrs (Centro, México DF, Guadalajara y Lima Perú) a la Conferencia:“Infección por Gram negativos que hay de nuevo en México ”  por  el  “Dr. Gerardo Martínez Aguilar” Infectólogo  Pediatra de la Cd. de Durango Dgo.   La sesión inicia puntualmente las 21 hrs. 
Para entrar a la Sala de Conferencia:
1.- hacer click en la siguiente liga, o cópiala y escríbela en tu buscador
2.- “Entra como Invitado” Escribes tu nombre y apellido en el espacio en blanco 
3.- Hacer click en el espacio que dice “Entrar en la Sala”
5.- A disfrutar la conferencia                                                                                                                            6.- Recomendamos que dejes tu Nombre Completo, Correo electrónico y que participes.

Henrys
 
Dr. Enrique Mendoza López
Webmaster: CONAPEME
Coordinador Nacional: Seminario Ciberpeds-Conapeme
Av La clinica 2520-310 
Colonia Sertoma ,Mty N.L. México
CP 64710
Tel-Fax 52 81 83482940 y 52 81 81146053
Celular 8183094806
www.conapeme.org
www.pediatramendoza.com
enrique@pediatramendoza.com
emendozal@yahoo.com.mx

Grabacion de la Conferencia: Espirometria como interpretarla en el consultorio


 Estimados amigos estas son las ligas de la grabacion de la conferencia de anoche
como interpretar Espirometria en el consultorio


Pagina de Conapeme: http://bit.ly/LolqgI
Pagina de Ciberpeds: http://bit.ly/JgI5hT

Pueden revisarla despacio y contesrar las preguntas enviarselas al  dr  David Camarena  para que les anote asistencia Of line

henrys

-- 
Dr. Enrique Mendoza López
Webmaster: CONAPEME
Coordinador Nacional: Seminario Ciberpeds-Conapeme
Av La Clinica 2520-310 col Sertoma
Monterrey N.L. CP 64718
Tel (81) 83482940, (81)81146053
 Cel 0448183094806
 



-- 
Dr. Enrique Mendoza López
Webmaster: CONAPEME
Coordinador Nacional: Seminario Ciberpeds-Conapeme
Av La Clinica 2520-310 col Sertoma
Monterrey N.L. CP 64718
Tel (81) 83482940, (81)81146053
 Cel 0448183094806
 

Dirtying Up Our Diets


OP-ED CONTRIBUTOR

Dirtying Up Our Diets

OVER 7,000 strong and growing, community farmers’ markets are being heralded as a panacea for what ails our sick nation. The smell of fresh, earthy goodness is the reason environmentalists approve of them, locavores can’t live without them, and the first lady has hitched her vegetable cart crusade to them. As health-giving as those bundles of mouthwatering leafy greens and crates of plump tomatoes are, the greatest social contribution of the farmers’ market may be its role as a delivery vehicle for putting dirt back into the American diet and in the process, reacquainting the human immune system with some “old friends.”
Lauren Nassef
Opinion Twitter Logo.

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Increasing evidence suggests that the alarming rise in allergic andautoimmune disorders during the past few decades is at least partly attributable to our lack of exposure to microorganisms that once covered our food and us. As nature’s blanket, the potentially pathogenic and benign microorganisms associated with the dirt that once covered every aspect of our preindustrial day guaranteed a time-honored co-evolutionary process that established “normal” background levels and kept our bodies from overreacting to foreign bodies. This research suggests that reintroducing some of the organisms from the mud and water of our natural world would help avoid an overreaction of an otherwise healthy immune response that results in such chronic diseases as Type 1 diabetesinflammatory bowel diseasemultiple sclerosis and a host of allergic disorders.
In a world of hand sanitizer and wet wipes (not to mention double tall skinny soy vanilla lattes), we can scarcely imagine the preindustrial lifestyle that resulted in the daily intake of trillions of helpful organisms. For nearly all of human history, this began with maternal transmission of beneficial microbes during passage through the birth canal — mother to child. However, the alarming increase in the rate of Caesarean section births means a potential loss of microbiota from one generation to the next. And for most of us in the industrialized world, the microbial cleansing continues throughout life. Nature’s dirt floor has been replaced by tile; our once soiled and sooted bodies and clothes are cleaned almost daily; our muddy water is filtered and treated; our rotting and fermenting food has been chilled; and the cowshed has been neatly tucked out of sight. While these improvements in hygiene and sanitation deserve applause, they have inadvertently given rise to a set of truly human-made diseases.
While comforting to the germ-phobic public, the too-shiny produce and triple-washed and bagged leafy greens in our local grocery aisle are hardly recognized by our immune system as food. The immune system is essentially a sensory mechanism for recognizing microbial challenges from the environment. Just as your tongue and nose are used to sense suitability for consumption, your immune system has receptors for sampling the environment, rigorous mechanisms for dealing with friend or foe, and a memory. Your immune system even has the capacity to learn.
For all of human history, this learning was driven by our near-continuous exposure from birth and throughout life to organisms as diverse as mycobacteria from soil and food; helminth, or worm parasites, from just about everywhere you turned; and daily recognition and challenges from our very own bacteria. Our ability to regulate our allergic and inflammatory responses to these co-evolved companions is further compromised by imbalances in the gut microbiota from overzealous use of antibiotics (especially in early childhood) and modern dietary choices.
The suggestion that we embrace some “old friends” does not immediately imply that we are inviting more food-borne illness — quite the contrary. Setting aside for the moment the fact that we have the safest food supply in human history, the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and food processing plants and farmers continue to take the blame for the tainted food that makes us ill, while our own all-American sick gut may deserve some blame as well.
While the news media and litigators have our attention focused on farm-to-table food safety and disease surveillance, the biological question of why we got sick is all but ignored. And by asking why an individual’s natural defenses failed, we insert personal responsibility into our national food safety strategy and draw attention to the much larger public health crisis, of which illness from food-borne pathogens is but a symptom of our minimally challenged and thus overreactive immune system.
As humans have evolved, so, too, have our diseases. Autoimmune disease affects an estimated 50 million people at an annual cost of more than $100 billion. And the suffering and monetary costs are sure to grow. Maybe it’s time we talk more about human ecology when we speak of the broader environmental and ecological concerns of the day. The destruction of our inner ecosystem surely deserves more attention as global populations run gut-first into the buzz saw of globalization and its microbial scrubbing diet. But more important, we should seriously consider making evolutionary biology a basic science for medicine, or making its core principles compulsory in secondary education. Currently they are not.
As we move deeper into a “postmodern” era of squeaky-clean food and hand sanitizers at every turn, we should probably hug our local farmers’ markets a little tighter. They may represent our only connection with some “old friends” we cannot afford to ignore.
Jeff D. Leach is a science and archaeology writer and founder of the Human Food Project.

Bacteria Thrive in Inner Elbow; No Harm Done


Bacteria Thrive in Inner Elbow; No Harm Done

Published: May 23, 2008
The crook of your elbow is not just a plain patch of skin. It is a piece of highly coveted real estate, a special ecosystem, a bountiful home to no fewer than six tribes of bacteria. Even after you have washed the skin clean, there are still one million bacteria in every square centimeter.


But panic not. These are not bad bacteria. They are what biologists call commensals, creatures that eat at the same table with people to everyone’s mutual benefit. Though they were not invited to enjoy board and lodging in the skin of your inner elbow, they are giving something of value in return. They are helping to moisturize the skin by processing the raw fats it produces, says Julia A. Segre of the National Human Genome Research Institute.
Dr. Segre and colleagues report their discovery of the six tribes in a paper being published online on Friday in Genome Research. The research is part of the human microbiome project, microbiome meaning the entourage of all microbes that live in people.
The project is an ambitious government-financed endeavor to catalog the typical bacterial colonies that inhabit each niche in the human ecosystem.
The project is in its early stages but has already established that the bacteria in the human microbiome collectively possess at least 100 times as many genes as the mere 20,000 or so in the human genome.
Since humans depend on their microbiome for various essential services, including digestion, a person should really be considered a superorganism, microbiologists assert, consisting of his or her own cells and those of all the commensal bacteria. The bacterial cells also outnumber human cells by 10 to 1, meaning that if cells could vote, people would be a minority in their own body.
Dr. Segre reckons that there are at least 20 different niches for bacteria, and maybe many more, on the human skin, each with a characteristic set of favored commensals. The types of bacteria she found in the inner elbow are quite different from those that another researcher identified a few inches away, on the inner forearm. But each of the five people Dr. Segre sampled harbored much the same set of bacteria, suggesting that this set is specialized for the precise conditions of nutrients and moisture that prevail in the human elbow.
Microbiologists believe that humans and their commensal bacteria are continually adapting to one another genetically. The precision of this mutual accommodation is indicated by the presence of particular species of bacteria in different niches on the human body, as Dr. Segre has found with denizens of the elbow.
Other researchers have found that most gut bacteria belong to just 2 of the 70 known tribes of bacteria. The gut bacteria perform vital services like breaking down complex sugars in the diet and converting hydrogen, a byproduct of bacterial fermentation, to methane.
The nature of the gut tribes is heavily influenced by diet, according to a research team led by Ruth E. Ley and Dr. Jeffrey I. Gordon of the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. With the help of colleagues at the San Diego and St. Louis Zoos, Dr. Ley and Dr. Gordon scanned the gut microbes in the feces of people and 59 other species of mammal, including meat eaters, plant eaters and omnivores. Each of the three groups has a distinctive set of bacteria, they report Friday in Science, with the gut flora of people grouping with other omnivores.
Despite the vast changes that people have made to their diet through cooking and agriculture, their gut bacteria “don’t dramatically depart in composition from those of other omnivorous primates,” Dr. Gordon said.
This new view of people as superorganisms has emerged from the cheap methods of decoding DNA that are now available. Previously it was hard to study bacteria without growing them up into large colonies. But most bacteria are difficult to culture, so microbiologists could see only a small fraction of those present. Analyzing the total DNA in a microbial community sidesteps this problem and samples the genes of all bacterial species that are present.
The goals of the human microbiome project include analyzing the normal makeup of bacterial species in each niche on the human body. “The focus in microbiology has been on pathogenic bacteria, but we are trying to identify the commensal bacteria so that we can begin to understand what proteins they make and how they contribute to our health,” Dr. Segre said.
Another goal is to understand how pathogenic bacteria manage to usurp power from the tribes of beneficial commensals in the skin or gut, causing disease.
The lifetime of an individual bacterium in the human superorganism may be short, since millions are shed each day from the skin or gut. But the colonies may survive for a long time, cloning themselves briskly to replace members that are sacrificed. Just where these colonies come from and how long they last is not yet known. Dr. David A. Relman ofStanford University has tracked the gut flora of infants and finds their first colonists come from their mother. But after a few weeks, the babies acquired distinctive individual sets of bacteria, all except a pair of twins who had the same set. Dr. Relman said he was now trying to ascertain if the first colonists remain with an individual for many years.
Taking a broad spectrum antibiotic presumably wreaks devastation on one’s companion microbiome. If the microbiome is essential to survival, it is perhaps surprising that the drugs do not make more people ill. Dr. Relman said that perhaps there were subtle long-term consequences that had not yet been identified. Much the same set of bacteria recolonize the gut after a course of antibiotics, he said, suggesting that the makeup of the colony is important and that the body has ways of reconstituting it as before.

Our Microbiomes, Ourselves


GRAY MATTER

Our Microbiomes, Ourselves

Andrea Wan
IMAGINE a scientist gently swabs your left nostril with a Q-tip and finds that your nose contains hundreds of species of bacteria. That in itself is no surprise; each of us is home to some 100 trillion microbes. But then she makes an interesting discovery: in your nose is a previously unknown species that produces a powerful new antibiotic. Her university licenses it to a pharmaceutical company; it hits the market and earns hundreds of millions of dollars. Do you deserve a cut of the profits?
It is a tricky question, because it defies our traditional notions of property and justice. You were not born with the germ in your nose; at some point in your life, it infected you. On the other hand, that microbe may be able to grow and reproduce only in a human nose. You provided it with an essential shelter. And its antibiotics may help keep you healthy, by killing disease-causing germs that attempt to invade your nose.
Welcome to the confusing new frontier of ethics: our inner ecosystem. In recent years, scientists have discovered remarkable complexity and power in the microbes that live inside us. We depend on this so-called microbiome for our well-being: it helps break down our food, synthesize vitamins and shield against disease-causing germs.
“We used to think of ourselves as separate from nature,” said Rosamond Rhodes, a bioethicist at Mount Sinai School of Medicine. “Now it’s not just us. It’s us and them.”
For bioethicists, one of the most important questions is what our microbes can reveal about ourselves. Studies have revealed, for example, that people who are sick with certain diseases tend to have distinctive collections of microbes. Someday we may get important clues to people’s health from a survey of their microbes. Professor Rhodes argues that this sort of information will deserve the same protection as information about our own genes. Your germs are your own business, in other words.
But that is only one side of the issue. As scientists get to know the microbiome better, they are also looking for new medical treatments: after all, most antibiotics were first discovered in bacteria and fungi. Michael Fischbach, a biologist at the University of California, San Francisco, and his colleagues have discovered a wealth of promising druglike molecules made by microbes in human bodies.
It may even be possible to use the bacteria themselves as living drugs. Doctors have treated hundreds of patients suffering from gut infections by giving them so-called fecal transplants: the bacteria from healthy people can create a stable ecosystem that drives disease-causing microbes to extinction. In their more speculative moments, scientists have proposed using microbes to treat obesity or autoimmune diseases. Some researchers are even genetically engineering microbes to make them more effective.
Manufacturers already add beneficial bacteria, called probiotics, to a range of foods. But regulating a microbe is trickier than regulating a molecule. Probiotics can multiply inside us, and can later escape to colonize new hosts. When a doctor prescribes engineered microbes for individual patients, the ethical questions will extend far beyond them, to their families and communities.
Microbes defy a simple notion of individuality. They are essential to our biology, and they travel with us from birth to death. Yet they also flow between us, and can be found in water, food and soil.
One important rule for microbiome ethics is to be transparent with the people involved in scientific studies. “The key is respectful interaction,” said Kieran O’Doherty of The University of Guelph outside Toronto. That’s particularly important when scientists travel to poor communities to collect microbes. They should not try to woo their subjects with false hope about the benefits of the research.
“We’re trying to develop a way to engage in those discussions without overselling the knowledge,” said Paul Spicer, an anthropologist at the University of Oklahoma. But if practical good does come from the research — say, a new drug — these communities should also have a way to share the benefits.
The microbiome poses another bioethical balancing act, between the interests of microbe hosts and the public at large. If scientists become too consumed with protecting the individuals they study, research on the microbiome could slow.
Monitoring the bacteria flushed into the sewer system of a town, for instance, might reveal a lot about the entire town’s health. But a regulation requiring permission from every resident of the town would stop the study dead in its tracks.
Indeed, one outcome of the microbiome revolution may be to reorient bioethics itself. “We’re not in this alone,” Professor Rhodes said. “We’re part of the environment and part of the world. Instead of just focusing on protection, we can ask, ‘How can we help people?’ ”
Carl Zimmer writes frequently for The New York Times about science and is the author of “A Planet of Viruses.”